What is a worldview and what are its structural elements. Legalism opposes Confucianism on state issues. devices. A single powerful state, fundamentally different from the family, was put forward as the highest value. The role of worldview in human life

The structure of the worldview

The worldview exists as a system knowledge, value orientations, ideals, beliefs and beliefs, and is expressed through course of action person, in specific life programs and projects of activity.

- Knowledge. The form of existence and systematization of the results of human cognitive activity: everyday, professional, scientific and philosophical. In culture, knowledge always exists in sign form.

Explicit knowledge (articulated, expressed in language, concepts and judgments) and implicit knowledge (non-articulated, contained in perceptual schemes, practical skills, arts, bodily skills, etc.). ʼʼKnowing whatʼʼ and ʼʼknowing howʼʼ.

A person who lacks knowledge is easily manipulated.

- Values ​​and evaluations. Ideas, principles, material objects (natural, cultural, etc.), phenomena and processes of reality that have a positive significance for a person and society. This is a system of spiritual and material goods that a person and society recognizes as a force that determines the thoughts, actions and relationships of people. Spiritual values, ᴛ.ᴇ, have a special role in the worldview. those ideas and concepts with the help of which people define good and evil, truth and error, beautiful and ugly, etc.

The value system forms the semantic basis of human life.

- norms and ideals. Representations and guidelines that set the program of human behavior, the prospect of his life. Here ʼʼimagesʼʼof the past and ʼʼprojectsʼʼof the future are laid, certain ways of life and behavior are approved or condemned. Through the correlation of knowledge and values ​​with norms and ideals, a person evaluates what is happening.

- Beliefs. The degree of a person's adherence to certain views and ideas, as well as the ability and willingness to make sacrifices for the sake of these ideas.

- Faith. A special superconscious feeling of a person. The range of human faith is wide - from practical, vital cognitive certainty (or evidence), ᴛ.ᴇ. completely rational belief to religious beliefs and gullible acceptance of absurd fictions.

All components of the worldview are interconnected and form a single whole.

The worldview combines various spheres of human mental activity: intellect and emotions, feelings and reason. The emotional and psychological basis of the worldview is called attitude, informative and visual - worldview, the cognitive-intellectual side is characterized as understanding of the world.

The emotional world of a person, as it were, is summarized in his attitude, but it also finds expression in the worldview, incl. and philosophical outlook.

The structure of the worldview - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The structure of the worldview" 2017, 2018.

Introduction ................................................ ................................................. .......................

Chapter 1................................................ ................................................. ...............................

The concept of worldview .................................................... ..................................................

Its structure ............................................... ................................................. ...............

Historical types .................................................................. ................................................. ......

Features of the philosophical worldview

Its difference from myth, religion and science

Basic problems of philosophy.

The Problem of the "Basic Question" of Philosophy in Classical and Non-Classical Philosophy

The structure of philosophical knowledge.

Status and role of philosophy in modern culture

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this work is to give an idea of ​​the worldview in general, its structure, historical types, aspects and forms, as well as the philosophical worldview as a special form of worldview. And also highlight the features of the philosophical worldview and indicate the difference from myth, religion and science.

Indicate the main problems of philosophy, separately highlight the problem of the "basic question" in classical and non-classical philosophy.

And also to describe the structure of philosophical knowledge and turn in the work to philosophy in modern culture

The material is divided into logically complete groups, the main ideas of which are reflected in the titles. Thus, the content of the control work is also its thesis plan.

CHAPTER 1: THE CONCEPT OF WORLD VIEW, ITS STRUCTURE AND HISTORICAL TYPES.

1. CONCEPT OF WORLD VIEW

Man is a rational social being. His work is worthwhile. And in order to act expediently in the complex real world, he must not only know a lot, but also be able to. To be able to choose goals, to be able to make this or that decision. To do this, he needs, first of all, a deep and correct understanding of the world - a worldview.

Man has always thought about what his place in the world is, why he lives, what is the meaning of his life, why there is life and death. Every epoch and social group has some idea about the solution of these issues. The sum of all these questions and answers form a worldview. It plays a special, very important role in all human activities.

There are two ways to master the universe:

1) through psychological associations, through images and representations;

2) by means of a logical system of concepts and categories.

There are 2 levels of worldview:

1) emotional-figurative - connected with the world of sensations (art, mythology and religion);

2) logical and rational (philosophy and sciences that form a worldview).

Worldview is a system of ideas about the world and a person’s place in it, about a person’s attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself, as well as the main life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals, and value orientations due to these views. This is a way of mastering the world by a person, in the unity of a theoretical and practical approach to reality. Three main types of worldview should be distinguished:

The everyday (everyday) is generated by the immediate conditions of life and the experience passed down through generations,

Religious - is associated with the recognition of the supernatural world principle, is expressed in an emotional-figurative form,

Philosophical - acts in a conceptual, categorical form, to some extent based on the achievements of the sciences of nature and society and having a certain measure of logical evidence.

A worldview is a system of generalized feelings, intuitive ideas and theoretical views on the surrounding world and a person’s place in it, on the many-sided relationship of a person to the world, to himself and to other people, a system of not always conscious basic life attitudes of a person of a certain social group and society, their beliefs of ideals, value orientations, moral, ethical and religious principles of knowledge and assessments. A worldview is a kind of framework for the structure of an individual, class, or society as a whole. The subject of the worldview is a person, a social group and society as a whole.

Based on the lessons of the past, A. Schweitzer stated: “For society, as well as for the individual, life without a worldview is a pathological violation of the highest sense of orientation”

The basis of the worldview is knowledge. Any knowledge forms a worldview framework. The greatest role in the formation of this framework belongs to philosophy, since philosophy arose and formed as a response to the worldview questions of mankind. Any philosophy performs a worldview function, but not every worldview is philosophical. Philosophy is the theoretical core of a worldview.

The structure of the worldview includes not only knowledge but also their assessment. That is, the worldview is characterized not only by information, but also by value (axiological) saturation.

Knowledge enters the worldview in the form of beliefs. Beliefs are the lens through which reality is seen. Beliefs are not only an intellectual position, but also an emotional state, a stable psychological attitude; confidence in the correctness of one's ideals, principles, ideas, views that subjugate feelings, conscience, will and actions of a person.

The structure of the worldview includes ideals. They can be both scientifically substantiated and illusory, both achievable and unrealistic. As a rule, they are turned to the future. Ideals are the basis of the spiritual life of the individual. The presence of ideals in the worldview characterizes it as a leading reflection, as a force not only a reflection of reality, but also focuses on its change.

Worldview is formed under the influence of social conditions, upbringing and education. Its formation begins in childhood. It determines the life position of a person.

It should be emphasized especially that the worldview is not only the content, but also a way of understanding reality. The most important component of the worldview is ideals as decisive life goals. The nature of the idea of ​​the world contributes to the setting of certain goals, from the generalization of which a general life plan is formed, ideals are formed that give the worldview an effective force. The content of consciousness turns into a worldview when it acquires the character of convictions, confidence in the correctness of one's ideas.

The worldview is of great practical importance. It affects the norms of behavior, the attitude to work, to other people, the nature of life aspirations, tastes and interests. This is a kind of spiritual prism through which everything around is perceived and experienced.

2. STRUCTURE OF WORLD VIEW

The structure of the worldview includes:

1) Knowledge - a set of information about the world around. They are the initial link, the "cell" of the worldview. Knowledge can be scientific, professional (military), everyday practical. The more solid a person's stock of knowledge, the more serious support his worldview can receive. However, not all knowledge is included in the worldview, but only those that a person needs for orientation in the world. If there is no knowledge, then there is no worldview.

2) Values ​​- this is a special attitude of people to everything that happens in accordance with their goals, needs, interests, one or another understanding of the meaning of life. Values ​​are characterized by such concepts as "significance", "usefulness" or "harmfulness". Significance shows the degree of intensity of our relationship - something touches us more, something less, something leaves us calm.

Utility shows our practical need for something. It can be characterized by material and spiritual values: clothing, shelter, tools, knowledge, skills, etc.

Harm is our negative attitude towards some phenomenon.

3) Emotions are a subjective reaction of a person to the impact of internal and external stimuli, manifested in the form of pleasure or displeasure, joy, fear, etc.

Life constantly gives rise to a complex range of emotions in people. Among them may be "gloomy" emotions: insecurity, impotence, sadness, grief, etc.

At the same time, people have a whole range of "bright" emotions: joy, happiness, harmony, life satisfaction, etc.

A powerful impetus to the worldview is given by moral emotions: shame, conscience, duty, mercy. A vivid expression of the influence of emotions on the worldview are the words of the famous philosopher I. Kant: "Two things always fill the soul with new and stronger surprise and reverence, the more often and longer we think about them - this is the starry sky above me and the moral law in me" .

4) Will - the ability to choose the goal of the activity and the internal efforts necessary for its implementation.

This gives the entire composition of the worldview a special character, allows a person to put his worldview into practice.

5) Beliefs - views actively adopted by people, corresponding to their vital interests. In the name of beliefs, people sometimes risk their lives and even go to death - their motive power is so great.

Beliefs are knowledge combined with will. They become the basis of life, behavior, actions of the individual, social groups, nations, peoples.

6) Faith is the degree of a person's trust in the content of his knowledge. The range of human faith is very wide. It ranges from practical evidence to religious beliefs, or even the gullible acceptance of ridiculous fictions.

7) Doubt - a critical attitude towards any knowledge or values.

Doubt is an essential element of an independent worldview. Fanatic, unconditional acceptance of any views without their own critical reflection is called dogmatism.

But one cannot go beyond a certain measure here, because one can fall into another extreme - skepticism, or nihilism - disbelief in anything, loss of ideals.

Thus, the worldview is a complex, contradictory unity of knowledge, values, emotions, will, beliefs, faith, and doubts, which allows a person to navigate in the world around him.

The core, the basis of the worldview is knowledge. Depending on this, the worldview is divided into ordinary, professional and scientific.

1) Ordinary worldview is a set of views based on common sense, everyday life experience. This spontaneously emerging worldview embraces the widest strata of society, is of great importance, it is the really "working" worldview of many millions of people. However, the scientific level of this worldview is not high.

2) A higher variety of worldview is professional, formed under the influence of knowledge and experience of people in various fields of activity, etc. This may be the worldview of a scientist, writer, politician, etc.

Worldview ideas that arise in the process of scientific, artistic, political, and other creativity can, to a certain extent, influence the thinking of professional philosophers. A vivid example of this is the enormous influence of the work of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky on domestic and world philosophy, but even at this level a person is not immune from mistakes.

3) The highest level of worldview is a theoretical worldview, to which philosophy also belongs. Unlike other types of worldview, philosophy is not only the creator of the worldview, but also professionally analyzes the worldview and subjects it to critical reflection.

The concept of the structure of the worldview involves the allocation of its structural levels: elemental, conceptual and methodological.

The elemental level is a set of worldview concepts, ideas, views, assessments that are formed and function in everyday consciousness.

The conceptual level includes various worldview problems. These can be various concepts of the world, space, time, social development of a person, his activity or knowledge, the future of mankind, etc.

The methodological level - the highest level of worldview - includes the basic concepts and principles that make up the core of the worldview. A feature of these principles is that they are developed not just on the basis of ideas and knowledge, but taking into account the value reflection of the world and man.

Being included in the worldview of knowledge, values, behavior are colored by emotions, combined with the will and form the conviction of the individual. An obligatory component of the worldview is faith, it can be both rational and religious faith.

So, worldview is a complex, tense, contradictory unity of knowledge and values, intellect and emotions, worldview and attitude, rational justification of faith.

The life-practical outlook is heterogeneous, it develops depending on the nature of education, the level of intellectual, spiritual culture, national, religious traditions of its bearers.

1) HISTORICAL TYPES OF WORLD VIEW ARE

1) mythological,

2) religious

3) philosophical.

Historically, the first was a mythological view of the world (myth - legend, legend; logos - word, doctrine, concept, law) a product of the imagination, an attempt by people to explain the world, the origin of the earth, rivers, lakes, the secrets of birth and death, etc. The human psyche requires a myth. This is the main way of understanding the world in primitive society - attitude.

The mythological worldview is characterized by an indistinct separation of subject and object, the inability of a person to distinguish himself from the environment. In the process of cognition, the unknown is comprehended through the known; but man knows his own being and the being of the genus from which he does not originally distinguish himself.

The basic principle of solving worldview issues in myth is genetic, i.e. the origin of the world, nature was explained by those who gave birth to whom (the book of Genesis). Myth combines 2 aspects: diachronic (a story about the past) and synchronic (an explanation of the present and future). The past was connected with the future, which ensured the connection of generations. People believed in the reality of the myth, the myth determined the norms of behavior in society, the system of values, established harmony between the world and man. This animation of the myth is expressed in the primitive forms of religion - fetishism, totemism, animism, primitive magic. The evolution of ideas about the mysterious spiritual forces underlying the phenomena of nature takes the classical form of religion. Along with mythology, religion also existed.

Religion(from Latin religio - piety, holiness) is a form of worldview, the foundation of which is the belief in the presence of certain supernatural forces that play a leading role in the world around us and specifically in the fate of each of us. In the early stages of the development of society, mythology and religion formed a single whole. So the main elements of religion were: worldview (in the form of a myth), religious feelings (in the form of mystical moods) and cult rituals. Religion is belief in the supernatural, based on faith.

The main function of religion is to help a person overcome the difficulties of being and elevate him to the eternal. Religion gives meaning and stability to human existence, cultivates eternal values ​​(love, kindness, tolerance, compassion, home, justice, linking them with the sacred, the supernatural). The spiritual beginning of the world, its center, a specific reference point among the relativity and fluidity of the world's diversity is God. God gives wholeness and unity to the whole world. It directs the course of world history and establishes the moral sanction of human actions. And finally, in the face of God, the world has a "higher authority", a source of strength and help, giving a person the opportunity to be heard and understood.

The problem of God, translated into the language of philosophy, is the problem of the existence of the absolute, the supra-worldly rational principle, actually infinite in time and space. In religion, this is the beginning of the abstract-impersonal, and the personal, expressed in God.

The mythological and religious worldview was of a spiritual and practical nature and was associated with a low level of assimilation of reality, the dependence of man on nature. In the future, with the development of civilization, people began to rise to a theoretical understanding of worldview problems. The result of this was the creation of philosophical systems.

Philosophy is an extremely generalized, theoretical vision of the world.

The term "philosophy" comes from the Greek "phileo" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom) and means "love of wisdom", to theoretical reasoning. For the first time the term "philosopher" was used by the ancient Greek scientist and philosopher Pythagoras (580-500 BC) in relation to people striving for high wisdom and the right way of life.

The very concept of wisdom carried an exalted meaning, wisdom was understood as a scientific comprehension of the world, based on selfless service to the truth.

Wisdom is not something ready-made that can be learned, solidified and used. Wisdom is a search that requires the exertion of the mind and all the spiritual powers of a person.

As a result of this emergence, the development of philosophy meant a dissociation from mythology and religion, as well as going beyond the framework of ordinary consciousness.

Philosophy and religion as a worldview often solve similar problems in explaining the world, as well as influencing the consciousness and behavior of a person.

Their fundamental difference lies in the fact that religion in solving worldview problems is based on faith, and philosophy is a reflection of the world in a theoretical, rationally understandable form.

1) The original types of worldview are preserved throughout history.

2) "Pure" types of worldview practically do not occur and in real life they form complex and contradictory combinations.

CHAPTER 2

1. FEATURES OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL WORLD VIEW

The worldview is formed not only by philosophy, but also by scientific (natural, technical, social) disciplines, as well as various forms of social consciousness - political, religious, etc. However, only philosophy gives it a holistic and complete look, which integrally unites and generalizes all worldview attitudes, formed in the human mind from various sources. The worldview exists on two levels:

1) sensual as a perception of the world, spontaneous perception of the surrounding reality and

2) rational - at the level of reason as a worldview, a rationale for processes and phenomena. The worldview at the rational level is the deepest understanding of the world. It is based on the theoretical substantiation of the laws of development of objective processes. But it can be carried out only on the basis of their sensory perception (of their own or other people), therefore, the worldview understanding of the world must be considered in the unity and interaction of the sensory and rational levels.

Philosophical worldview was formed historically in connection with the development of philosophical knowledge itself. At the pre-philosophical level, primitive man's worldview attitudes were presented in the form of myths, legends, tales, etc. In the late period of primitive society, a religion arises that, from its own positions, formed worldview attitudes in connection with ideas about the creation of the world, the origin of people and animals, life and death, etc. Both myths and religion did not go down in history along with primitive society, when there was no science yet, but only practical skills and illusory ideas about them existed. The mythological-religious worldview continued to accompany social development at all its subsequent stages, but not as the only forms of worldview, but as those left over from the past, coexisting along with the philosophical form.

In addition, the philosophical worldview as the highest type of worldview is a rational explanation of the world based on theoretical and logical analysis.

The main feature of the philosophical worldview is its criticality in relation even to its own initial theses.

The philosophical worldview appears in a conceptual, categorical form, relying to some extent on the achievements of the sciences of nature and society and having a certain measure of logical evidence.

The main features of the philosophical worldview:

Conceptual validity;

systematic;

Versatility;

criticality.

The focus is on a person with his attitude to the world and the attitude of the world to this person.

Despite its maximum criticality and scientific character, philosophy is extremely close to the ordinary, and to the religious, and even to the mythological worldview, because, like them, it chooses the direction of its activity quite arbitrarily.

2. ITS DIFFERENCE FROM MYTH, RELIGION AND SCIENCE

The origins of philosophy are mythology and religion , but unlike the latter, philosophy in explaining the world and man relies not on faith, but on the power of reason , on his ability to scientifically investigate reality, as a result of which becomes the basis of the scientific worldview .

Unlike other types of worldview, philosophy is characterized by evidence, logical validity, argumentation, and the systemic nature of knowledge.

Therefore, philosophy, forming a holistic understanding of the world, is

core worldview, its theoretical basis.

Unlike science, religion and art, which also form a certain system of worldview, the philosophical worldview has a number of distinctive features.

The place of philosophy in the spiritual culture of society. The specificity of the philosophical worldview and the philosophical way of solving the eternal problems of human existence become apparent when comparing philosophy with science, religion and art.

Philosophy and Science. The links between science and philosophy are fundamental, and many of the greatest philosophers were also eminent scientists. Suffice it to recall the names of Pythagoras and Thales, Descartes and Leibniz, Florensky and Russell. Science and philosophy are related by the fact that they are areas of rational and evidence-based spiritual activity, focused on achieving truth, which in its classical sense is "a form of coordinating thought with reality." However, there are at least two major differences between them:

1). any science deals with a fixed subject area and never claims to formulate the universal laws of being. Thus, physics discovers the laws of physical reality; chemistry - chemical, psychology - psychological. At the same time, the laws of physics are very indirectly related to mental life, and the laws of mental life, in turn, do not work in the field of physical interactions. Philosophy, unlike science, makes universal judgments and seeks to discover the laws of the entire world. Moreover, if any philosophical school refuses such a task of constructing universal world-schematiks, it must give a universal justification for its unwillingness to deal with such problems;

2). science traditionally abstracts from the problem of values ​​and from making value judgments. She seeks the truth - what is in the things themselves, without discussing whether what she found is good or bad, and whether there is any sense in all this. In other words, science primarily answers the questions "why?" "How?" and "from where?", but prefers not to ask metaphysical questions like "why?" and for what?". Unlike science, the value component of knowledge cannot be removed from philosophy. It, claiming to solve the eternal problems of being, is focused not only on the search for truth, as a form of coordinating thought with being, but also on the knowledge and affirmation of values, as forms of coordinating being with human thought. In fact, having ideas about the good, we try to restructure both our own behavior and the surrounding circumstances of life in accordance with them. Knowing that there is something beautiful in the world and having formed a system of corresponding ideal ideas, we create a beautiful work of art in accordance with it, change material reality for the better, or eliminate ugly things.

In interpreting the relationship with science, philosophy has two dead-end extremes. This, on the one hand, is natural philosophy, as an attempt to build universal pictures of the world without relying on the data of science, and, on the other hand, it is positivism, calling on philosophy to abandon the discussion of metaphysical (primarily value) problems and focus solely on generalizing the positive facts of science. The passage between the Scylla of natural philosophy and the Charybdis of positivism implies a constant creative and mutually enriching dialogue between science and philosophy: the attention of specific sciences to universal philosophical models and explanation schemes and, conversely, the consideration by philosophical thought of theoretical and experimental results obtained in modern scientific research.

Philosophy and Religion. Like philosophy, a religious worldview offers a person a system of values ​​- norms, ideals and goals of activity, in accordance with which he can plan his behavior in the world, perform acts of evaluation and self-esteem. Like philosophy, religion offers its own universal picture of the world, which is based on an act of divine creativity. The value and universal nature of the religious worldview bring it closer to philosophy, however, there are fundamental differences between these two most important areas of spiritual culture. The fact is that religious ideas and values ​​are accepted by an act of religious faith - by the heart, not by the mind; personal and non-rational experience, and not on the basis of rational arguments, as is characteristic of philosophy. The system of religious values ​​has a transcendental, i.e., superhuman and superrational, character, proceeding either from God (as in Christianity) or from his prophets (as in Judaism and Islam), or from holy ascetics who have achieved special heavenly wisdom and holiness, as this is characteristic of many religious systems in India. At the same time, a believer may not rationally substantiate his worldview at all, while the procedure for logically substantiating his ideas is obligatory for a person who claims to have a philosophical nature of his worldview.

Religious philosophy proper is possible as a rational attempt to build a holistic religious worldview, free from dogmatic ecclesiastical blinders. Brilliant examples of such a philosophy, in particular, were given by the domestic philosophical tradition at the turn of the century (see V.S. Soloviev, P.A. Florensky, N.O. Lossky, S.L. Frank, brothers S.N. and E.N. .Trubetskoy). Theology (or theology) must be distinguished from religious philosophy. The latter in a number of its sections can use the language, methods and results of philosophy, but always within the framework of recognized church authorities and verified dogmatic definitions. The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of religious experience, its place in culture and human existence, is called the philosophy of religion. It is clear that the philosophy of religion can be dealt with not only by a believer, but also by an atheist philosopher.

The relationship between philosophy and religion varies from era to era, from culture to culture, ranging from a state of peaceful coexistence and almost dissolving into each other (as in early Buddhism) to irreconcilable confrontation, as was characteristic of Europe in the 18th century. At present, the trend towards a dialogue between philosophy, religion and science is gaining momentum in order to form a synthetic worldview that harmoniously synthesizes modern scientific facts and theoretical generalizations with religious values ​​that have been tested for centuries and fundamental moves of systematic philosophical thought.

Philosophy and myth. Much brings myth to philosophy, more precisely, myth was the basis of philosophy

However, despite all the closeness, there is still a boundary between philosophy and myth. The fact is that the language of philosophy is the language of philosophical categories and, if possible, rigorous proofs. Emotions, appeals to personal experience, fantasies and imagination are the exception rather than the rule. But without this, a myth cannot exist. His element is personal experience and empathy, confession and passion, flight of fantasy and emotional catharsis (purification). Of course, the deepest symbols and images can also exist in philosophy, but they are always only the initial object for subsequent rational interpretation; like a figurative-semantic "gene" for the subsequent unfolding of an integral philosophical worldview.

Thus, philosophy is somewhat similar, but somewhat different from all other major areas of spiritual culture (or areas of spiritual creativity) of a person. This determines its "central-connecting" position in the spiritual culture of mankind, which does not allow this culture to disintegrate into a bad multiplicity of ideas, values ​​and worldviews that are at war with each other. Here we come to the problem of the diverse functions that philosophy performs in human cultural existence.

Difference from the religious-mythological and ordinary types of worldview?

First, there is a departure from anthropomorphism: the philosophical worldview no longer tries to transfer the properties of a person and human relationships to the world as a whole.

Secondly, the philosophical worldview gradually replaces the sensual images on which the myth rests with abstract concepts, and the associative connections with the image of the myth - with the logical connections of concepts.

Finally, thirdly, the philosophical worldview is presented not as a dogma that should be accepted without reasoning, but as one of the possible ways of understanding and explaining the world, allowing criticism and replacement by better ways. This stimulates the development of the substantiation of philosophical systems and serves as the basis for changing and improving the philosophical worldview.

Of course, all these features of the philosophical worldview were formed gradually. The first philosophical constructions are still filled with elements of mythology. In Thales, the world is still full of gods. Heraclitus speaks of the Sun as a living being, which is looked after by the goddess of justice Dike and her servant Erinyes. According to Empedocles, all processes in the world are conditioned by the struggle of love and hate. However, gradually all these mythological and anthropomorphic elements disappear. The water of Thales, the air of Anaximenes, the fire of Heraclitus and the earth of Xenophanes are replaced in Parmenides by the abstract concept of being. If before Parmenides philosophers only proclaimed their theses, then Parmenides for the first time resorts to logical proof, which in his student Zeno acquires a distinct form of evidence from the contrary, based on the law of the excluded middle.

Thus, a philosophical worldview - philosophy - was gradually formed, which at first included well-known scientific knowledge - mathematical, astronomical, medical. It was as holistic as myth, but unlike myth, it was abstract, rational, and critical.

CHAPTER 3. MAIN PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY. THE PROBLEM OF THE “MAIN QUESTION” OF PHILOSOPHY IN CLASSICAL AND NON-CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY.

1. MAIN PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

In ordinary consciousness, for many centuries there has existed, and often still occurs today, the idea that philosophy does not have its own real problems. It is no coincidence that the symbol of the philosopher was a bear sucking its own paw. For example, on the title page of J. Brucker's book "A Critical History of Philosophy", published in the 40s of the 18th century, there was such an image, under which an aphorism was placed: Ipse alimenta sibi (self-sustainment).

In modern philosophy there is a whole trend - positivism, which declares the problems of philosophy meaningless, pointless. However, the problems of philosophy are no less real than in any science. And despite the fact that the composition of the problems and their expression are different for philosophers of different epochs and peoples, they to one degree or another have something in common, and this circumstance alone indicates that they are not accidental, but are generated by some deep reasons.

Philosophical problems- these are problems not about objects (natural or created by people), but about the attitude of a person towards them. Not the world (in itself), but the world as the abode of human life - this is the starting point of view of philosophical consciousness.

"What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for?" - it is precisely in these questions that, according to Kant, the highest interests of the human mind are contained.

Philosophical questions - these are questions about the fate, destiny of man and mankind.

Philosophers do not invent these questions. They are created by life. They appear as fundamental contradictions of living human history, having an open, independent character. Passing through the entire human history, acting in a certain sense as eternal problems, they acquire in different epochs, in different cultures and their own specific, unique appearance. Philosophers - to the best of their strength and abilities - they solve these eternal, vital questions. The very nature of philosophical problems is such that a simple, unambiguous, final result of their resolution is impossible, their theoretical solution is conceived not as a final solution that removes the problem, but as solutions designed to:

recap the past

Determine the specific face of the problem in modern conditions

Think pragmatically about the future

Universal problem philosophy is the problem of the relationship "world - man". She has many faces : "subject - object", "material - spiritual", "objective - subjective", etc.

For a long time, philosophers have been afraid to single out the main problem in this universal problem, the so-called fundamental question of philosophy.

2. THE PROBLEM OF THE "MAIN QUESTION" OF PHILOSOPHY IN CLASSICAL AND NON-CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY

To begin with, let's deal with classical and non-classical philosophy: classical and non-classical philosophy are terms that have emerged from natural science. The geometry of Euclid, Newtonian physics are considered classical. At the end of the 19th, beginning. In the 20th century, a departure from the classics was observed - the creation of non-classical physicists and geometries. The same processes occur in philosophy. German classical philosophy (from Kant to Hegel) is considered the crowning achievement of classical philosophy. The main problem is the problem of rational, reasonable knowledge. Moreover, the mind is considered not only as an individual, but also super-individual, embodied in concepts, thoughts, ideals, in what Hegel called social consciousness. Man masters the world only with the help of reason. This philosophy is dominated by faith in reason, in its perfection and omnipotence. It is believed that reason leads to the enlightenment of the masses and democracy. Classical philosophy believes that there is a rational order in the world; in nature, in society, in man himself. The task of man is to comprehend the laws of nature and society with the help of reason. The beginning of the 20th century - the rapid development of science, anti-humanism in everything (wars, murders, etc.). All this called into question the idea of ​​the omnipotence of reason. In addition, there were discoveries in the field of biology, human psychology (Freud's discovery), etc. An expanded understanding of Freud's ideas leads to a new understanding of man. The first attempt to rethink classical philosophy was Marxism. He was the first to go out of classical philosophy into practice, human activity, but otherwise he adhered to classical theories. Other philosophical currents of the 20th century break with classical theory in general. They are no longer based on reason; irrationalism, i.e., super-rationalism, becomes their ideal. It is based on something that does not contradict the mind, it is higher than the mind. Thus, the task of non-classical philosophy becomes the knowledge of the laws of not the objective, but the subjective world: internal states, human experiences. A person is considered in irrationalism as a subject of communication, as his internal sensual connection with the world (whether it be the world of another person or society). In classical philosophy, the epistemological approach dominated. In the philosophy of the 20th century, the axiological approach becomes. Axiology is the science of values. The subject of analysis is fear, longing, care, despair. Philosophy becomes psychological.

Knowing what classical and non-classical philosophy is, let's consider the "basic question" from different angles:

In Marxist philosophy, this question was formulated by F. Engels: "The great fundamental question of all philosophy, especially modern philosophy, is the question of the relation of thinking to being."

This approach to the formulation of the main question of philosophy is based on the fundamental facts of human life:

There are material phenomena and spiritual ones (consciousness, will, thinking);

Each person distinguishes himself from everything that surrounds him and distinguishes himself from everything else;

He correlates his goals with reality, evaluates reality.

The "dual" nature of the human, the "doubling" of himself and his world in consciousness by a person is the basis for highlighting as the main question about the relationship between the material and the spiritual.

The fundamental question of philosophy has two sides :

1) what is primary - spirit or matter? Depending on the answer to this question, philosophers are divided into two main directions.

Representatives of the first - materialists - take matter as a basis, and consider consciousness as something secondary, dependent on matter.

Varieties: metaphysical materialism, vulgar materialism, dialectical materialism.

Representatives of the second - idealists - consider the spirit, consciousness to be primary, and the material world, secondary.

Idealism exists in two main varieties: -subjective idealism - whose representatives consider the consciousness of a person, a subject, to be primary;

Objective idealism - the supporters of which consider the primary spirit that exists independently of man.

Materialism and idealism are monistic directions in philosophy (Greek monos - one), since both directions take one beginning as a basis.

Along with philosophical monism, there is a current of dualism (lat. dio - two), whose supporters consider matter and consciousness as two parallel principles.

2) Do we know the world?

Most philosophers answer this question in the affirmative.

However, some philosophers deny the possibility of knowing the world in whole or in part. These were representatives of agnosticism (Greek a - no, gnosis - knowledge). Some philosophers, recognizing the cognizability of the world, expressed doubt about the reliability of knowledge, they were called skeptics, and the direction - skepticism (Greek skepticism - criticizing).

Considering the main question of philosophy, it should be noted that not all philosophers agree with it. Moreover, most philosophers, in the past and now, do not even consider it their most important task to solve this particular issue.

The problems of ways to achieve truth, the problems of moral duty, freedom, practice, etc. are brought to the fore in various philosophical teachings:

French philosopher A. Camus "I consider the question of the meaning of life the most urgent of all questions";

Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev - the main problem is the problem of human freedom: its essence, nature, purpose;

German philosopher P. Rickert - the problem of evil and violence.

But nevertheless, any philosopher, considering this or that problem, one way or another considers the relationship "world - man", which means that he wants it or not, he turns to the main question of philosophy.

CHAPTER 4. STRUCTURE OF PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE. STATUS AND ROLE OF PHILOSOPHY IN MODERN CULTURE

1. STRUCTURE OF PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

As a theoretical discipline, philosophy has a number of sections:

Ontology (ontos-being, logos-doctrine) is the doctrine of being or the origins of everything that exists.

Gnoseology (gnosis-knowledge, logos-teaching) is the doctrine of knowledge. This is the section where problems of the nature of knowledge and its possibilities are studied. The preconditions of cognition are investigated, the conditions of its reliability and truth are revealed. Epistemology includes the following chapters and departments:

Psychology of cognition - studies the subjective-individual processes of cognition.

The logic of knowledge is the science of generally valid forms and means of thought necessary for rational knowledge in any field of knowledge. (dialectical logic, logic of classes, logic of propositions, logic of relations, etc.)

Criticism of knowledge - analyzes the relationship between the elements of objective and subjective.

General history of knowledge, evolution of knowledge.

Axiology (axios - value) - the doctrine of values.

In the structure of philosophical knowledge, the following are also distinguished:

Social philosophy - analysis, study of the social structure of society, a person in it.

Philosophical anthropology is the study of man. (from the origin problem to the cosmic future.)

Philosophy of culture - a section where the essence and significance of culture is studied, explored.

The philosophy of law is the doctrine, the science of the most general theoretical and philosophical problems of jurisprudence and state studies.

Philosophy of history.

History of Philosophy.

Independent, no less important are sections such as:

Dialectics - (the art of conversation, dispute) - the doctrine of the most common regular connections and formation, the development of being and cognition. Method of knowledge.

Aesthetics is a science that studies the sphere of a person's aesthetic attitude to the world and the sphere of people's artistic activity. (includes the theory of aesthetic values, the theory of aesthetic perception, the general theory of art.).

Ethics is a philosophical science, the object of study of which is morality, morality, as a form of social consciousness, as one of the aspects of human life.

There are known attempts to clearly classify within philosophical knowledge, for example:

Methodological department of philosophy (logic, ontology, epistemology)

Systematization of data of scientific knowledge.

Evaluating Department of Philosophy (area of ​​issues related to the facts of evaluating human activity).

However, modern philosophers refuse to build multi-stage classifications, since there are no forbidden topics for philosophy.

2. STATUS AND ROLE OF PHILOSOPHY IN MODERN CULTURE

Modern philosophy receives a new form by expanding all its basic functions, giving them an actual theoretical and practical content. This is due to the further development of philosophical problems proper, overcoming lack of spirituality, utilitarian technocratic thinking, narrow practicality and formalism. Modern philosophy as a new stage in the development of theoretical thought reflects the state of society and the position of man in the world in relation to the post-industrial era and the corresponding level of scientific achievements. It is a theoretical model of an emerging information technology civilization, its co-evolution with the natural and space environment, contributes to finding solutions to global problems of mankind, understanding of deep integration processes in the world community, and a correct understanding of other pressing problems.

The formation of modern philosophy has the necessary prerequisites. Among them:

1) social, due to the formation of information technology production, a change in the nature of social relations and social structure, an increase in the number of middle class populations throughout the world. The formation of a post-industrial society is associated with the emergence of a new type of worker, combining a high level of professionalism and culture with knowledge of the foundations of a new philosophical thinking;

2) scientific, related to outstanding discoveries in the field of fundamental sciences (synergetics, vacuum theory, anthropic principle, microelectronics, etc.), which determined the development of the modern scientific picture of the world;

3) theoretical, determined by new developments in the field of philosophy itself, its expanding links with practice.

The most important achievements of modern philosophy are the civilizational approach to the analysis of social phenomena and the principle of anthropocentrism in its renewed content. The world is considered as a complex multi-level self-developing system with multi-opportunities for the interaction of its fragments. In modern philosophy, it was necessary to abandon the idea of ​​progress as a linear process. Historical development is considered as a transition from one relatively stable phase of structural organization to another, to a new level of organization of elements and ways of their self-organization.

Modern materialism has received real opportunities for positive contacts with various areas of world philosophical thought. And such interaction, carried out on a principled basis, strengthens his worldview positions, provides an opportunity for further creative development of fundamental theoretical problems and social practice.

It is also worth noting that the transition of mankind to a qualitatively new stage of development in social, spiritual, cultural relations is today only a real opportunity for it to get out of the global crisis, but it is far from a realized state. Difficulties and dangers in the implementation of this task stem mainly from the person himself: a low level of its awareness, misunderstanding by society of the causes and mechanisms of the functioning of natural, anthropological and social phenomena in their interaction as specifically special elements of a single world being.

Conclusion: Mankind must master in full the achievements of spiritual culture, the science of rational management and regulation of world processes. This task cannot be solved outside of modern philosophical knowledge about the world. What once again proves the status and important role of philosophy in modern culture

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: Textbook. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M .: TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2003.

2. http://pedlib.ru/Books/2/0279/2_0279-41.shtml

3. http://shpori4all.narod.ru/

4. Lecture from the site http://referatik.com.ua/

5. Kononovich L.G., Medvedeva G.I. Philosophy: a textbook for higher educational institutions. - Rostov n / D .: publishing house "Phoenix", 2000

6. http://ihtika.net/?qwe=vf&fold2=4296&isutfff=1

Philosophical Dictionary, M.: 1979.

"Culture and Ethics". M, 1973. p. 82

Before considering the problem of the emergence of philosophy, its beginnings, identifying the specifics of the philosophical worldview, let's answer the questions: what is a worldview? What forms of comprehension of reality preceded philosophy in historical and genetic terms? The concept of "worldview" is inseparable from the concept of "man", since it is a person who has an outlook on the world. A person is the basis of ideas about the world, and such a representation is necessary for a person to organize his activities, behavior, communication, self-affirmation, determining the line of life and behavior strategy. The core of the worldview is the most general ideas about the world: its origin, patterns of development, as well as the correlation of one's personal existence with the world whole, with the system of values.

The most important components of the worldview structure are knowledge, values ​​and beliefs. By itself, knowledge without other components of the structure of the worldview does not provide a holistic worldview. famous Soviet philosopher A. F. Losev (1893–1988) wrote that if a person has only knowledge and nothing else, he is a terrible person, an unscrupulous person, and even a dangerous person. And the more knowledge he has, the more terrible, dangerous and useless he will be for society. Great Russian writer L. N. Tolstoy also noted that knowledge without a moral basis means nothing. In the structure of the worldview, along with knowledge, there is also a system of life values, attitudes and aspirations of a person, his beliefs.

Thus, outlook- a system of the most general ideas and knowledge about the world and a person's place in it, his values ​​and beliefs. All components of the system are presented in a single indivisible wholeness, and only with an analytical approach can we consider them in a differentiated way.

To do this, we highlight the following aspects of the worldview:

cognitive;

axiological;

Praxeological.

Each of these sides of the worldview is a complex subsystem, where, accordingly, separate components (aspects) can be distinguished. Thus, the components of the cognitive side of the worldview are the naturalistic aspect, in which knowledge about nature is accumulated, and the humanitarian aspect, which contains knowledge about man and society.

Axiological (value) the worldview side includes subject and subjective values ​​as constituent components. Regulatory principles and beliefs act as obligatory aspects of the praxeological side of the worldview.

Let us characterize the individual components of the worldview. Let's start with the components of the cognitive side of the worldview.

naturalistic aspect the cognitive side of the worldview - knowledge and ideas about nature, about the universe (the world as a whole), space, about the natural essence of man. This aspect makes it possible to find answers to the questions: how did the world arise? What is life? How did it come about? How does she relate to the innocent? In what forms does it exist in the universe?

The specificity of the relevant knowledge lies in the fact that they are considered from the point of view of man's attitude to nature as a sphere of his being and as objects of his practical activity.

Humanitarian aspect The cognitive side of the worldview is a person's awareness of his social nature, his place in the world of people. The humanitarian aspect includes sociological, socio-political, ethical and aesthetic views and ideas of people. The essence of humanitarian issues is the answers to the questions: what is a society? How is it arranged? How does it function? What is the direction of the historical process? What is the meaning of history? Is the historical process determined or subject to chance? Is social development predictable? Is a person free to choose actions and direct activities? The cognitive side of the worldview forms not only views and ideas about nature, the Cosmos, society, human history, but also answers questions related to clarifying the problem of human cognition of the external world: how does thought relate to the subject? Is it possible to adequately reflect thought in an object? Are the forms, the laws of mental activity? a priori (pre-experimental) abilities of a person or are they formulated in the process of his practical activity? What is truth, delusion, falsehood? and so on.

In the system of worldview, an important place is occupied by axiological (value) side of the worldview. Axiology- a philosophical doctrine about the nature of values, their place in reality and in the structure of the value world, that is, about the connection of various values ​​with each other, about their connections with social and cultural factors and the structure of the individual. General Question of Value Theory What is good? was put by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates (c. 470-399 BC) during the crisis of Athenian democracy. The problem of values ​​always arises in the era of the devaluation of cultural tradition and the discrediting of the ideological foundations of society. The concept of "value" is used to indicate the human, social and cultural significance of certain phenomena of reality.

The two poles of a person's value attitude to the world are objective and subjective values. Subject values ​​- the whole variety of objects of human activity, as well as social relations and natural phenomena included in this circle, which are evaluated in terms of good or evil, beauty or ugliness, fair or unfair, permissible or forbidden, etc.

Subjective values ​​are the methods and criteria on the basis of which the procedures for evaluating the relevant phenomena are carried out. These are attitudes and assessments, requirements and prohibitions, goals and projects fixed in the public mind in the form of normative ideas and acting as guidelines for human activity. Subjective values ​​are not genetically inherited, but are formed in the process of human socialization. Value systems are formed and transformed in the historical development of society.

Purpose praxeological subsystem- to ensure a close connection of the cognitive and value components of the worldview with human activity. This is the spiritual and practical side of the worldview, since here the worldview as a spiritual phenomenon "inscribes" various programs of activity, behavior and communication in the practical activity of a person. Regardless of the era, socio-cultural situation, worldview includes certain regulatives of spiritual and practical activity which define norms of behavior and communication that differ from each other in different cultures. Such regulators can be set through mythological, religious, scientific or philosophical views. They always have a place in society. In addition to regulations and principles, the praxeological side of the worldview also includes such a component as persuasion. Belief is a form of deepening, rooting knowledge and values ​​in the system of worldview. Knowledge may or may not translate into beliefs. In turn, beliefs are not always based solely on rational knowledge. Beliefs are a link in the transition from knowledge to practice. Only when knowledge becomes beliefs does it become a component of a worldview. Sometimes, bearing in mind the important role of beliefs, the worldview is defined as the totality of a person's beliefs. Belief is not only an intellectual position, but also an emotional state, a stable psychological attitude, a person's unshakable confidence in the correctness of ideas. Ideological conviction helps a person in a moment of mortal danger to overcome the instinct of self-preservation, sacrifice his life and perform feats in the name of certain ideals.

In the mechanisms of formation of beliefs, along with knowledge, belief in the correctness of knowledge, the system of values, the most important role is played by volitional component- the ability or willingness to translate the acquired knowledge, values, ideals into practical activities. selfishness, social indifference, the discrepancy between actions and well-learned knowledge and values ​​do not provide an effective worldview, a person's civic position.

So, the praxeological side of the worldview includes the regulative principles (methods) of activity, behavior, communication and belief. In beliefs are synthesized knowledge and perspective ideological order, belief in their truth, social values ​​and ideals, human feelings, his emotional attitude to knowledge, values, ideals and volitional readiness for action. The chain of worldview formation of a person includes: knowledge - values ​​- beliefs - the will to act.

We can offer the following integrative definition of a worldview. outlook- this is an extremely generalized, ordered system of a person's views on the world around him, natural phenomena, society and himself, as well as the basic life positions of people, beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and evaluation of material and spiritual events arising from the general picture of the world; it is a kind of scheme of the world and man's place in it.

When studying the worldview as a system of human views on the world around, the following stages of worldview development of the world are distinguished: worldview, worldview, worldview.

attitude- the first stage of the worldview formation of a person, which is a sensory awareness of the world in the form of images that organize individual human experience.

worldview- the second stage, which allows you to see the world in the unity of its sides, to give it a certain interpretation. The perception of the world can be based on various grounds, appear both in positive and negative colors, emphasizing the state of a person depending on what is happening (for example, the absurdity of the situation, tragedy). The state of temporary, transient shock, which can be called a state of "meaning loss", was described by L. N. Tolstoy in the brilliant work "War and Peace": "From the minute when Pierre saw this terrible murder committed by people who did not want to do it, in it was as if his soul had suddenly been pulled out of that spring on which everything was held together and seemed alive, and everything fell into a heap of senseless rubbish.In him, although he did not realize it, faith in the improvement of the world, both in soul, and into God ... The world collapsed in his eyes, and only meaningless ruins remained"

world outlook- the highest stage of the worldview formation of a person, a developed worldview with complex interweaving of multifaceted relationships to reality, with the most generalized synthesized views and ideas about the world, one's place in it.

However, worldview and worldview are inseparable from worldview. They are inextricably linked, mutually complement each other, forming a holistic image of the world and determining the place of man in it.

Is there a purpose for our being in this world? Is it meaningful at all? Unfortunately, today people are haunted by the same questions as many, many centuries ago. It is a fact that the world is very changeable. It is simply impossible to follow him. The structure of the worldview in philosophy has changed and formed over the centuries. The reason is that new knowledge made it possible to draw new conclusions, establish new facets, and obtain expanded opportunities. The development of mankind is directly connected with the development of its self-consciousness.

Worldview: its essence and structure

It is a very complex phenomenon associated with the manifestation of the spiritual world of man. The foundation of the worldview is our consciousness. It is possible to single out the consciousness of the human community and the individual. Consciousness manifests itself in various forms. These are myths, fairy tales, legends and so on. Self-consciousness is its initial level. In some cases, it has a direct relationship with the assessments and opinions of other people. At a deeper level, self-awareness flows into awareness of oneself in society. The last and most complex form of it is called a worldview. The structure of the worldview is complex. In principle, we can say that in itself it consists of combined ideas, as well as knowledge about a person, relationships between people, the world around them. A generalized view of the world allows you to better understand yourself, highlight the goals that you should strive for, the rules that you need to follow. The worldview reflects the very essence of the world, and its insignificant details are absorbed by something large, all-encompassing. In reality, it can manifest itself in the minds of specific people. Personalities use it for a better, in-depth understanding of life, its phenomena, patterns. That is, to explain what is, in principle, impossible to explain. The worldview determines and creates specific psychological attitudes that remain with a person until the end of his days.

The structure of the worldview

It is a kind of synthesis of some features of spiritual life. The structure of the worldview includes such important elements as experiences, knowledge of the world by a person. It has an emotional and psychological side. Its elements are the so-called levels of feelings and moods. The structure of the worldview includes the cognitive-intellectual side. The worldview has evolved over the centuries. In principle, we can say that everything began with myths, and ended with religion. How is myth different from religion? The differences are global, but not every one of us knows and can determine them.

The bottom line is that with a mythological worldview, people unite our world with the world of the supernatural, that is, with the world of gods, fantastic creatures, and so on. They think they live with these creatures in the same world.
With a religious worldview, everyone has their own world. The gods also have great power, but do not lead the same life as people. The myth helped people to feel protected, and the religion allows not to lose oneself.