Menopause, even if it proceeds normally (physiologically), causes a complex restructuring in the woman's body, which requires a certain tension (stress) of its organs and physiological systems. In this respect, menopause has much in common with pregnancy and puberty (menarche). Moreover, the somatic and neuropsychic changes that occur in the body of a woman in menopause often repeat the changes that occurred in her body during puberty. These include: irritability, slight excitability, mood instability, thyroid dysfunction (often hyperthyroidism), gastrointestinal disorders (constipation, nausea), skin rashes, etc.

According to our observations, late psychoses that develop during menopause and menopause are more likely to occur in those women who had mild neuropsychiatric disorders in the pubertal period. Finally, uterine bleeding, more often anovulatory, can seem to repeat the bleeding that occurred during puberty, until the correct menstrual cycle is established. Observations on the relationship between the phenomena of puberty and menopause create prerequisites for the prevention of menopause in its pathological manifestation.

The restructuring of the organs and systems of the female body in the menopause is expressed in the form of the following anatomical and functional changes and disorders.

SLEEP (physiological state)

SLEEP, a periodically occurring physiological state in humans and animals; characterized by an almost complete absence of reactions to external stimuli, a decrease in the activity of a number of physiological processes. There are normal (physiological) sleep and several types of pathological sleep (narcotic, lethargic, etc.).
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SLEEP, the physiological state of humans and animals, characterized by immobility and almost complete absence of reactions to external stimuli. The state of sleep occurs periodically in accordance with the intraday biorhythm (cm. BIORHYTHMS) rest-activity.
The founder of the "science of sleep" was M. M. Manasseina (1843-1903), a student and collaborator of the physiologist I. R. Tarkhanov (cm. Tarkhanov Ivan Ramazovich), which in the 1870s on puppies studied the importance of sleep for the body. Analyzing her results, Manasseina came to the conclusion that sleep is more important for the body than food.
Modern ideas about the nature of sleep were formed in the second half of the 20th century. after the appearance of methods for recording the bioelectrical activity of the brain (electroencephalogram, EEG), muscles (electromyogram, EMG) and eyes (electrooculogram, EOG). The biggest achievement in this area was the discovery in the 1950s. N. Kleitman, W. Dement (USA) and M. Jouvet (France) of the so-called paradoxical sleep.
The structure of a person's night sleep
Natural sleep includes two states (phases) that are as different from each other as from wakefulness - non-REM sleep (slow-wave, orthodox, synchronized, restful, telencephalic sleep, sleep without rapid eye movements) and REM sleep (paradoxical, desynchronized, activated, rhombencephalic, rapid eye movement sleep). When falling asleep, a person falls into slow sleep, successively passing through 4 stages: nap (1), superficial sleep (2), moderate sleep (3) and deep sleep (4). Change in the EEG pattern in this phase (increased amplitude (cm. AMPLITUDE) and decreasing the frequency of oscillations) is called synchronization. Each of the stages of slow sleep has its own characteristics that are reflected in the EEG: stage 2 is characterized by the so-called sleep spindles and K-complexes (therefore it is called the stage of sleep spindles), stages 3 and 4 are slow, the so-called delta waves, therefore both these stages are grouped under the name delta. Mental activity in slow-wave sleep is represented by fragmentary unemotional thoughts, and the time spent in sleep is usually underestimated. In young healthy people, light sleep takes about half of the total night's sleep, and deep sleep - 20-25%.
Slow sleep ends with a change in posture, followed by a sharp transition to the phase of paradoxical sleep: desynchronization is noted on the EEG, that is, high-voltage slow activity is replaced by fast low-amplitude rhythms, as upon awakening, however, paradoxically, all the smooth muscles of the body completely relax (disappearance of activity on EMG) and rapid eye movements occur (strong EOG activity). In addition, uneven pulse and breathing, twitching of the facial muscles, fingers, limbs are observed, in men (of any age) an erection occurs. When awakening during paradoxical sleep, subjects in 80% of cases report experiencing emotionally charged dreams (not necessarily erotic), and the time spent in a dream is often overestimated. The REM sleep phase takes up about 20% of the sleep time. Non-REM sleep and REM sleep following it form a cycle with a period of about 1.5 hours. A normal night's sleep consists of 4-6 such cycles. Thus, electrophysiological data make it possible to distinguish natural sleep from pathological sleep (narcotic, drug, lethargic) and the so-called sleep-like states (coma (cm. COMA (in medicine)), hibernation (cm. hibernation), torpor) - a special genetically determined state of the body of warm-blooded animals (cm. warm-blooded animals), characterized by a successive change of certain electrographic patterns in the form of cycles, phases and stages.
In humans, unlike other mammals (cm. MAMMALS) sleep cycles are not the same: delta sleep predominates in the first night cycles, the periods of paradoxical sleep are very short (10-15 minutes) and outwardly weakly expressed. In the second half of the night, on the contrary, deep slow sleep is almost absent, but the periods of paradoxical sleep are extremely intense and long (30-40 minutes). This phenomenon is a consequence of human adaptation to the conditions of civilization; in fact, each day is a 16-hour period of sleep deprivation (deprivation), followed by an 8-hour period of restorative sleep (“return”). According to the law of "recoil", deep sleep is restored first, and then - paradoxical. In accordance with the natural biorhythm, an adult requires 1-2 periods of daytime sleep. This is evidenced by bouts of daytime sleepiness, absent-mindedness and relaxation, especially dangerous when driving a car and performing professional duties that require attention and composure.
Age features, evolution and ecology of sleep
In newborns, sleep takes up most of the day, and activated sleep, or twitching sleep (analogous to REM sleep in adults), makes up the majority of sleep. In the first months after birth, the time of wakefulness increases rapidly, the proportion of REM sleep decreases, and slow-wave sleep increases. Characteristically, the percentage of paradoxical sleep at birth is lower in those mammals that are born with a mature nervous system (lambs, guinea pigs, etc.). In old age, the time of deep sleep is reduced (up to its complete loss), and the proportion of paradoxical sleep also decreases.
Slow-wave and paradoxical sleep are characteristic of birds, however, the periods of the latter are shorter, and the proportion in sleep is lower than that of mammals. Newly hatched chicks have a higher percentage of paradoxical sleep than adult birds. Attempts to detect paradoxical sleep during daily periods of rest in cold-blooded animals (cm. COLD BLOODED ANIMALS) turned out to be unsuccessful. It is possible that paradoxical sleep is not the oldest type of sleep, but wakefulness.
In all mammalian species studied, from the most primitive to humans, the main sign of slow-wave sleep (EEG synchronization) and the above-described characteristics of paradoxical sleep are fundamentally similar. However, only primates (cm. PRIMATES) it is possible to distinguish 4 stages of slow sleep; cats have two, laboratory rats have one. According to neurophysiologist L.M. Mukhametov, dolphins, eared seals and, possibly, sirens (cm. SIRENS (aquatic mammals)) have a special organization of slow sleep, in which the hemispheres of the brain (cm. BRAIN) can take turns sleeping. This is apparently due to the need to maintain the ability to breathe air in a dream while being in water. As for paradoxical sleep, doubts about its existence still remain in relation to the egg-laying mammal echidna and fully aquatic mammals dolphins.
Sleep mechanisms
In a state of slow sleep, brain cells do not turn off and do not reduce their activity, but rebuild it; during paradoxical sleep, most of the neurons of the cerebral cortex work as intensively as during the most active wakefulness. Thus, both phases of sleep play an important role in life activity, they are apparently associated with the restoration of brain functions, processing of information received in the previous wakefulness, etc., but what exactly this role consists of remains unknown.
The states of sleep and wakefulness are extremely complex; various structures of the brain and various neurotransmitter systems are involved in their regulation. Firstly, it is the activity-rest rhythm regulation mechanism, which includes the retina (cm. RETINA) eye, suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus (cm. HYPOTHALAMUS)(the main pacemaker of the body) and the epiphysis (cm. EPIPHYSIS) that secretes the hormone melatonin. Secondly, these are mechanisms for maintaining wakefulness - subcortical activating systems that provide the entire spectrum of human conscious activity, located in the reticular formation. (cm. reticular formation), in the area of ​​the blue spot, raphe nuclei, posterior hypothalamus, basal nuclei of the forebrain (cm. FOREIGN BRAIN); as mediators (cm. MEDIATORS) their neurons secrete glutamic acid (cm. GLUTAMIC ACID), acetylcholine (cm. ACETYLCHOLINE), norepinephrine (cm. NORADRENALINE), serotonin (cm. serotonin) and histamine (cm. HISTAMINE). Thirdly, this is the mechanism of slow sleep, which is realized by special inhibitory neurons scattered in different parts of the brain and releasing the same mediator - gamma-aminobutyric acid. Finally, this is the mechanism of REM sleep, which is triggered from a clearly defined center located in the region of the so-called pons and medulla oblongata (cm. MEDULLA). Acetylcholine is the chemical signal transmitter of these cells. (cm. ACETYLCHOLINE) and glutamic acid (cm. GLUTAMIC ACID).
Despite the outward similarity of brain activity during active wakefulness and paradoxical sleep, the fundamental difference between these states is that of all the activating brain systems, only one or two are active during paradoxical sleep, and precisely those located in the brain stem. All other systems are turned off, and their neurons are silent for the entire period of paradoxical sleep. This apparently determines the difference between our perception of the real world and the world of dreams. However, the mechanisms that determine the onset and alternation of both phases of sleep are still poorly understood.
Sleep disorders
The most common so-called. hylosomnic conditions associated with the onset and maintenance of sleep at night: too long falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, early morning awakenings, etc., colloquially called insomnia. Usually insomnia at night is combined with drowsiness during the day. The most frequent are transient disorders of this type associated with external stress factors (travel, family and industrial conflicts, etc.). When these factors are eliminated, sleep is normalized. Of particular importance in our time have acquired disorders associated with transmeridian flights. It is shown that for the adaptation of the sleep-wake cycle when flying in the western direction, a day is required for each time zone, and in the eastern direction - about one and a half.
If such phenomena last more than three weeks and are not clearly related to any recent events, then they are considered persistent. Thus, about 20% of workers in industrialized countries work in shifts or only at night (and it is easier to adapt to permanent night work than to shift work). All of them acquire persistent sleep disorders over the years. A separate group is insomnia of the elderly, associated with the disappearance of the daily rhythm of activity-rest.
Persistent sleep-wake disturbances occur in psychiatric illnesses such as depression (cm. DEPRESSION (in medicine)), neuroses (cm. NEUROSIS), psychosis (cm. PSYCHOSIS), as well as with alcoholism, abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic drugs, respiratory failure during sleep (apnea (cm. APNEA) in a dream, Pickwickian syndrome, Ondine's syndrome), various diseases: the central nervous system, kidneys, endocrine system, with pain of various origins. They can also be provoked by external factors: noise, heat, cold, vibration, etc. In most cases, the same non-specific disorders are objectively manifested: suppression of deep slow sleep (it becomes smaller and comes later), as well as paradoxical sleep.
However, there are also some peculiarities. So, a very important specific sign of endogenous depression is a significant shortening of the latency of the first period of paradoxical sleep (less than 50 minutes). With alcoholism during periods of withdrawal (cm. ALLEN Tim), as well as with a sharp abolition of psychotropic drugs, along with insomnia, the so-called. The "return" of paradoxical sleep, i.e., the lengthening and acceleration of its periods, accompanied by vivid unpleasant dreams.
Of particular importance are sleep disorders associated with impaired and stopped breathing during sleep (apnea (cm. APNEA) in a dream). This disease affects 1-3% of the population, mostly men of mature and elderly age, suffering from overweight. Apnea provokes cardiac arrhythmia and dramatically increases the risk of dying in your sleep. Night recordings objectively confirm both sleep structure disturbances and cardiac disturbances in these patients. In the treatment, a very extensive arsenal of methods is used, ranging from a “unloading” diet to the use of special breathing apparatus during sleep and even surgery.
In medical practice, cases of pseudo-insomnia are not uncommon, when the patient's complaints are not confirmed by objective examinations that do not reveal sleep disorders. In these cases, "insomnia" is purely subjective, or these people simply need less sleep.
Another group of sleep disorders is the so-called. hypersomnic conditions that are observed in certain diseases - diabetes, thyroid insufficiency, uremia, hepatic disorders, some brain tumors, etc., when excessive daytime sleepiness occurs. Among this group, narcolepsy occupies a special position - a unique hereditary disease covering 0.1-0.2% of the population associated with a specific disruption of the mechanism of paradoxical sleep, when its spontaneous attacks (muscle relaxation, rapid eye movements, vivid dreams) occur suddenly during time of daytime wakefulness; accordingly, at night there is a decrease in this phase of sleep and a violation of cyclicity.
There are also cases of pseudo-hypersomnia, when excessive daytime sleepiness is not at all associated with any pathology: these people simply need more sleep.
To so-called. "parasomnic states" include sleepwalking, or sleepwalking. This phenomenon occurs against the background of slow sleep, and during an attack, the EEG of a sleepwalker is a mixture of signs of light sleep and wakefulness. Sleepwalking is common in children and adolescents, at this age it is not a pathology.
Treatment of sleep disorders should be primarily hygienic, aimed at maintaining a healthy lifestyle, regular regimen and creating the best conditions for sleep. Psychotherapeutic methods, soothing teas and herbal tinctures are also used. Sleeping prescription drugs should be used last, when all other sleep aids have been exhausted. It must be borne in mind that the "ideal sleeping pill" has not yet been created, that is, a substance that is effective and safe to such an extent that it can be bought without a doctor's prescription and taken independently, like vitamins. Even the latest innovations in this area give very undesirable consequences with regular use.
The scientific and medical community is now aware that even small chronic disturbances of sleep and wakefulness, so characteristic of modern urbanized humanity, if they do not pose a health hazard, are nonetheless fraught with serious consequences in the production sector, transport, etc. They even may be one of the most important causes (hidden behind the vague term "human factor") of a number of incidents and disasters, including the Chernobyl accident (cm. CHERNOBYL NPP). The US Special Public Commission "Sleep, Disasters and Social Policy" concluded in 1988 that the life and nature of human production activities in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution (driving a car, "communicating" with a computer, etc.) dictates the need for strict adherence to strict requirements for sleep hygiene, while his lifestyle is poorly consistent with these requirements (night cities flooded with electric light - the so-called "Edison effect", constant noise, late television broadcasts, etc.).
This conflict continues to escalate, forcing urgent action in the industrialized countries. In particular, in the United States, more than 500 centers for the correction of sleep disorders have been deployed throughout the country, a special Institute for the Study of Sleep has been created within the framework of the National Institute of Health (an analogue of our Academy of Medical Sciences), new drug-free methods of treatment have been developed, etc. One of the most important areas in this area is the creation of effective and harmless drugs of a new generation. To solve all these problems, a necessary condition is the study of the fundamental physiological mechanisms of human sleep.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what "SLEEP (physiological state)" is in other dictionaries:

Physiol. the state of the brain and the body as a whole, characterized by means of immobility, an almost complete absence of reactions to external. stimuli and at the same time a special organization of the activity of brain neurons. S.'s condition is coming ... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

There are 12 systems in our body. Each of them is respiratory, digestive, endocrine, etc. - has its own key indicator. Sputnik asked a preventive medicine specialist Ekaterina Stepanova talk about the most important parameters of the body, which are important to always keep under control.

1. Blood pressure (BP). For six billion of the world's population, it fluctuates between 120/80. Why - no one knows, but it is these numbers that allow us to be healthy and feel good. What is this pressure? Oxygen from the air dissolves in water and enters the blood under this pressure. This is the first important indicator of our health! A change in blood pressure is a signal of the central nervous system. This is her SOS!

2. The number of breaths. It is equal to 16 in 1 minute. This is the norm for all healthy adults at rest. It is clear that activity, as well as emotions, make their own adjustments. Any changes in this indicator signal us about problems in the respiratory system.

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3. Heart rate (HR). The norm is 78 in 1 minute. What is this number? This is the optimal rate of movement of oxygen through the blood, along with blood from the lungs to the organ.

This is an indicator of the work of our cardiovascular system, which is responsible, among other things, for regulating the speed of water in the body.

These three indicators, when they are in the physiological norm, allow us to feel good. You don't need a doctor to control them. It is worth sounding the alarm if:

• pressure deviates from the norm 120/80 - we can start to get sick and certainly feel bad. Critical can be considered numbers close to 220 or, conversely, to 40-35. This is a reason to immediately call an ambulance!
• when running, working, increased load, the number of heartbeats (HR) has gone beyond the permissible limit, then at rest within 2 minutes it should return to normal. This is how the heart works: it works for 0.5 seconds - it rests for 0.5 seconds with proper breathing. It doesn’t happen otherwise, or it happens, but not for long ...

4. Hemoglobin. The norm for women is 120-140 for men - 140-160 millimoles per liter. What is this number? This is the amount of oxygen in our body, which is at the same time and constantly. The amount of oxygen that we have enough for all our needs. And even with a margin - in which case to activate additional resources of the body. This figure should be constant, it is this amount that provides us with the quality of life.

Hemoglobin is an indicator of the hematopoietic system, including the density of blood in terms of oxygen. If the amount of hemoglobin in the blood falls, the number of respiratory movements increases. Shortness of breath appears, as a result, the number of heart contractions increases, blood pressure is disturbed and ... we are waiting for an ambulance!

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5. Bilirubin. This is an indicator of blood toxicity in terms of the number of processed dead red blood cells, since every day cells in the body are born and die. The norm is 21 micromoles per liter. It allows you to analyze the work of the digestive (liver, intestines) and excretory systems. Allows you to understand the body's ability to self-purify.

If the indicator exceeds 24 units, this indicates that the body begins to die quietly. All systems suffer - there is no life in a dirty environment.

6. Urine. Both quantity and quality are important here. Urine is a qualitative characteristic of water in the body. The physiological norm of excreted urine per day is 1.5 liters. In a healthy person, it is light straw in color, specific gravity 1020 g/l, acidity 5.5. Nothing else should be in the urine. If protein or leukocytes appear in the urine, it's time to worry, the excretory system is malfunctioning.

7. Weight. Stocks of clean water and energy in the body are regulated, including by hormones. In nature, a prime example is the camel. He tolerates multi-day hikes well, as before that he eats a hump. And the hump is fat. During exercise, fat is broken down into water and energy, so fat is the body's strategic energy store.

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Like all key indicators, weight has its health limits. For an adult, it is customary to consider the rate of his growth (-) 100 (+) (-) 5-10 kg as the norm. For example - if your height is 170 centimeters, then the maximum weight norms are from 60 to 80 kg. From birth to death, the weight should be constant according to the age scale, except in explicable situations. Since all systems (organs) adjust and serve the norm of weight, laid down by nature, and not "inflated" by us. All excess weight is overtime work for the organs, which leads to their faster wear. As a rule, everyone who drinks little and does not eat enough foods that alkalize the body is overweight.

In the case of pregnancy, the female body is under stress, so weight fluctuations after childbirth are possible, but all women know about this and help their body return to normal.

Since by nature a man and a woman perform different functions, their relationship with fat is also different. In women, the fat reserve is a depot of hormones that regulate the course of pregnancy; it performs a thermoregulatory function (protects the fetus from the cold); is a strategic reserve for mother and fetus.

For men, things are different. Excess fat most often begins to be deposited in the waist area. It is difficult to remove from the body, as it has its own characteristics. This fat, depending on the amount, can be a sign of an endocrine failure or an incipient disease. Abdominal fat (deposited in the waist area - Sputnik) accumulates estrogens - hormones that antagonize male testosterone. This weakens the male power. Normally, the male waist should be 87-92 cm.

We must not forget that with excess weight, internal organs suffer. They are also prone to obesity. Excess fat on the internal organs is one of the most toxic! The reproductive system is responsible for the constancy of weight.

8. Blood sugar. The norm is 3.5-5.5 millimoles per liter (according to WHO recommendations). This indicator determines the supply of operational energy in the body. That is for every day. Glycogen is made from sugar every day. It is needed for the energy of cells in order for the necessary chemical reactions to take place in the body. If the body is starving for several days, glycogen ends and the consumption of a strategic reserve begins. The endocrine system, including the pancreas, is responsible for the constancy of this indicator.

9. pH-acid-base balance in the blood. It is also called the concentration of the oxygen-hydrogen factor (alkali and acid). Resuscitators and cardiologists call it an indicator of the life of everything! Norm 7.43. At a value of 7.11, the point of no return comes - death! In this case, it is no longer possible to save a person. At numbers 7.41, the development of acute heart failure begins.

Unfortunately, in our country this indicator is not given the importance it deserves. In many countries, a conversation between a doctor and a patient begins with this indicator - in order to understand the conditions in which a person lives, what he eats, drinks, how active he is, the doctor must find out the so-called physiology of life.

pH balance is those strategic numbers that the body will maintain in any way. If organic (environmentally friendly) alkaline products do not come to us from the outside, then the body will take from itself the beloved (teeth, nails, bones, blood vessels, eyes, etc.) the main alkaline metals Ca, MG, Na, K , and further unpleasant development of events begins.

We are arranged in such a way that we can exist healthy only in a slightly alkaline internal environment. The whole body, all systems, but to a greater extent musculoskeletal (joints, ligaments, bones) are responsible for the constancy of this indicator.

10. Leukocytes. The norm is 4.5 thousand × 10⁹. Our white blood cells are our individual protection. Everything that has entered our body (viruses, bacteria) will be destroyed. If there is an increase in all groups of leukocytes (monocytes, eosenophils, stab) - this indicates that our security has been violated and we are at war. And the higher the number, the more serious the situation. These are our protectors! Our border control! The immune system is responsible for the constancy of our protection.

At a body temperature of 42°C, life is impossible, but even 35.4°C is not the best temperature, since a water crystal at such values ​​\u200b\u200bis unstable, like chemical reactions. 36.6°C is the temperature of the constancy of our chemical processes, the constancy of our life in nature! The temperature outside is 40°C, and we have 36.6°C, outside it is 50°C, we have 36.6°C, because we are healthy!

Our immune system is responsible for the constancy of our temperature. By the way, if you catch a cold and run out of your nose - that's fine. The discharge from the nose is lymph and dead white blood cells. They need to be given a way out, do not organize a cemetery of leukocytes inside yourself, for the first 2-3 days vasoconstrictor drops are not needed - let the unnecessary flow out. Of course, this will cause some inconvenience, but it will reduce intoxication and lead to a faster recovery.

12. Cholesterol (general). The norm is 6.0 millimoles per liter. This indicator determines the fat content of water as the basis of all fluids in the body. It is responsible for the functioning of the nervous system, since the shell of neurons (conductors) along which the impulse (signal) runs consists of cholesterol, and the cells of the main analyzer - the brain are partially composed of cholesterol, it is the energy reserve on which the brain works.

Summing up, I would like to say: it is desirable to keep blood pressure, heart rate and respiratory movements of the body under control every day. Once every six months, you need to be interested in how our body feels, whether it copes with life in the environment. To do this, you just need to pass tests and make the necessary measurements. If something is wrong, this is a signal that our biological machine is close to breaking down and needs service!

A systematic study of the physiological parameters of blood during sensitive periods of development was carried out and the specifics of the age-related sensitization of the organism were revealed. New data have been obtained on the nature of changes and the degree of adaptation of functional systems in various sensitive periods of development. The systems most acutely responsive to functional changes occurring in the body have been identified. Based on the results obtained, age markers of sensitization were identified.

sensitive period

physiological parameters

1. Kolokolov, G.R. Analyzes. Complete reference book / G.R. Kolokolov and others - M .: Eksmo Publishing House, 2005. - 268 p.

2. Kishkun, A.A. Guidelines for laboratory diagnostic methods / A.A. Kishkun. - M .: Publishing house. GEOTAR-Media group, 2007. - 798 p.

3. Kamyshnikov, V.S. Methods of clinical laboratory research / V.S. Kamyshnikov. - M.: MEDpress-inform, 2009. - 752 p.

4. Lyubimova, Z.V. Age physiology / Z.V. Lyubimova, K.V. Marinova, K.V. Nikitin. – M.: Humanit. ed. Center "Vlados", 2003. - Part 1. – 304 p.

The problem of sensitive and related critical periods of development today is often in the focus of attention of specialists of various profiles and opens up real prospects both for the integration of different branches of knowledge about a person, and for a comprehensive study of a person within the framework of one science.

When considering the stages of development, it becomes necessary to take into account both the features of the morphofunctional development of the physiological systems of the body and their specific sensitivity to external influences.

At different stages of ontogenesis, sensitivity to external influences is of a specific nature, which is shown by physiological and psychological changes. In this regard, sensitive periods are considered as periods of the greatest sensitivity to the effects of environmental factors.

In recent years, there has been a trend towards the transition of the problem of age-related sensitization from psychological to physiological, since without taking into account the characteristics of functional rearrangements in different age periods, it is impossible to understand the mechanisms of adaptation to changing environmental conditions.

In connection with the foregoing, the purpose of the study was to study the morphological and physiological characteristics of the human body during sensitive periods of development.

The study involved 150 practically healthy people who were divided into age groups corresponding to 8 sensitive periods. In the selected groups, physiological indicators (pulse, pressure, frequency and depth of respiration, the content of blood cells) were studied according to generally accepted methods.

Based on literary sources, we have identified 8 periods of postnatal ontogenesis, during which an increased sensitivity of body functions to environmental factors is possible: newborn (10-15 days); children (3 years); teenage (11-15 (d), 12-16 (m); youthful (20-21 (d), 23-25 ​​(m); first maturity (48-50 (d), 43-45 (m); second maturity (55-57 (w), 60-64 (m); elderly (75-78 (w), 73-75 (m); senile (above 80).

The research results are presented in table. 1 and fig. 1-2.

Based on the presented data (Table 1; Fig. 1), blood pressure, both systolic and diastolic, has an almost linear dependence on the period of sensitive development. So, the lowest pressure indicators were noted in newborns (65/35 mm Hg), then it linearly increases and reaches a peak in old age (150/90 mm Hg).

Table 1

Physiological indicators of the body in various sensitive periods of development

Rice. 1. Change in physiological parameters in different sensitive periods

Rice. 2. Change in VC (l) in different sensitive periods

Heart rate (HR), as well as blood pressure, is characterized by age-related dynamics. In newborns, the heart rate is significantly higher than in other periods of development and is 140 beats per minute. This is due to insufficient development of the regulatory link of cardiovascular activity. Then there is a gradual decrease in heart rate. In the first years of life, the pulse is not yet stable, not always rhythmic and remains so until 6-7 years of age. Starting from the age of 7, the pulse becomes rhythmic, stable, correct. This feature of the activity of the heart is explained by the fact that by this age the development of the nervous regulatory mechanism of heart contractions is basically completed. The process of slowing the pulse continues until adolescence, then its increase is observed: in old age it reaches 100 beats / min, which is probably due to the weakening of regulatory influences from the nervous and humoral systems.

In parallel with the heart rate, changes in the frequency of respiratory movements occur, with the exception that, starting from adolescence, there is a steady decrease in breathing.

Linear dynamics is not typical for VC indicators (Fig. 2). So, the peak of VC values ​​falls on the period of the first maturity (4.0 l). The minimum values ​​of VC are observed during the neonatal period (1.2 l) and old age (1.9 l).

Thus, the analysis of the functional state of the body in different sensitive periods indicates a high sensitivity and similarity of the quantitative indicators of the neonatal and old age periods, which, however, have different conditions. In the first case, the noted changes are associated with adaptive changes in the body, in the second case, with a violation of nosological characteristics.

One of the most important diagnostic methods that reflect the reaction of hematopoietic organs to the effects of various physiological and pathological factors includes general clinical studies (hemoglobin concentration, erythrocytes, ESR, color index, leukocyte count, leukocyte formula).

Based on the data of general clinical studies, the greatest deviations of the indicators were noted in the neonatal period (increasing trend) and old age (decreasing trend).

As can be seen from the presented data (Fig. 3-8), newborn blood tests differ significantly from a simple children's blood test. This is due to the specifics of the development of the blood system and hematopoietic organs in the prenatal period. At the birth of a child, especially in the first months, active formation of blood cells occurs in the bone marrow of all bones.

In the blood test of newborns, the absolute level of hemoglobin is 220.1±11.2 g/l. The number of red blood cells is also significantly higher than in an adult, which is associated with hypoxia that occurs during fetal development. Their number in the blood of newborns is 6.7±0.9x1012/l, which leads to higher hematocrit (55.1±1.2%) and color index (1.2±0.001). A higher color index is due to increased saturation of the erythrocyte with hemoglobin in order to overcome hypoxic phenomena after birth.

During this period, an increased content of iron was also noted (39.2±1.2 µmol/l). It is known that the only source of iron for the fetus is the mother's blood, from where it penetrates in combination with maternal transferrin to the placenta. The main consumption of iron begins on the 8th week after birth and is associated with the intensification of erythropoiesis.

In the blood tests of people of senile age, changes were noted that make it possible to judge the development of anemia at this age. Thus, the content of erythrocytes, hemoglobin and iron in the blood is reduced compared to the period of first maturity by 23.33 and 25%, respectively.

Rice. 3. Dependence of the content of erythrocytes on the period of sensitive development

In the elderly and in old age, changes in laboratory parameters characterizing the status of iron in the body were noted. Serum iron concentration decreases with age. From the literature data, it is known that the content of ferritin in the blood serum, as well as the depot of iron in the red bone marrow, increases with age. This indicates a violation of iron consumption by erythrocyte precursors. Decreased serum iron concentrations in the elderly can be explained by achlorhydria, or insufficient dietary intake of vitamin C, which reduces the absorption of iron in the small intestine.

Rice. 4. Dependence of hemoglobin content on the period of sensitive development

Attention is drawn to the dynamics of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate in various sensitive periods of development. Thus, the most critical for ESR are adolescent (increase to 17.0 ± 1.2 mm/h in girls and up to 12.0 ± 1.1 mm/h in boys), senile (16.2 ± 2.1 mm /h), the second maturity (12.2±2.1 mm/h) and youthful (12.0±2.1 mm/h) periods. In the process of aging, ESR increases in both men and women.

From the data obtained by us, it follows that the most sensitive periods for the content of platelets are the neonatal period, when the number of platelets is increased to 390.0 ± 21.2 thousand/l and the adolescent period, which is also characterized by increased (270.0 ± 8.9 thousand/l ) content of red blood platelets compared with other periods.

For the ratio of erythrocyte and plasma volumes (hematocrit), the most critical period is the neonatal period (Ht=55.1±1.2%), as well as periods of maturity for men (Ht=44.0±7.8%).

Rice. 5. Dependence of the content of platelets on the period of sensitive development

In the study of the leukocyte formula, we found the predominance or decrease of certain forms in various critical periods. Thus, the neonatal period turned out to be critical for almost all forms of leukocytes. At birth, children have physiological leukocytosis. The number of leukocytes in the blood test of a newborn in the first days of life is within 15 109 / l. The bulk of leukocytes is represented by segmented neutrophils (49.5±1.2%) and lymphocytes (42.0±2.3%). The level of eosinophils (3.0±0.9%) and monocytes (7.1±0.3%) is also increased compared to the other periods.

The children's period (3 years) is the most critical for the content of lymphocytes, the level of which during this period reaches 58.1 ± 3.2%, which leads to a leukocytosis that is clearly expressed in relation to other periods (8.04 109/l).

In periods after 40 years, there is a predominance of segmented neutrophils, however, the total number of leukocytes remains within the normal range due to a change in the ratio of other forms of leukocytes. So, in the period of the second maturity, the number of lymphocytes is reduced compared to other periods (26.1±5.4%).

The senile period, as well as the neonatal period, acts as a critical period for the content of many forms of leukocytes. However, if during the neonatal period an increased content of leukocytes was noted, then during this period both an increased (segmentonuclear neutrophils) and a reduced (total number of leukocytes, monocytes) content is observed.

Thus, based on the data obtained by us, it can be noted that the most sensitive stages of ontogenesis include: the neonatal period (10-15 days), children's (3-6.5 years), adolescent (11-15 (d), 12-16 (m) and senile (above 90 years) periods.In the neonatal period in infants, blood pressure decreases, pulse and respiration increase, the content of many physiological and biochemical parameters (erythrocytes, hemoglobin, platelets, iron, leukocytes) is increased in the blood, which is due to the need a rapid change in adaptive stereotypes and an increase in the plasticity of functional systems against the background of the morphogenesis of organs and tissues.Old age is critical for a number of indicators of the cardio-respiratory system (increased pressure, pulse, decreased frequency and depth of breathing), as well as parameters of the blood system.These changes indicate weakening of the protective properties and disruption of the adaptive capabilities of an aging organism.

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Normal physiology Marina Gennadievna Drangoy

1. What is normal physiology?

Normal physiology is a biological discipline that studies:

1) the functions of the whole organism and individual physiological systems (for example, cardiovascular, respiratory);

2) the functions of individual cells and cellular structures that make up organs and tissues (for example, the role of myocytes and myofibrils in the mechanism of muscle contraction);

3) interaction between individual organs of individual physiological systems (for example, the formation of erythrocytes in the red bone marrow);

4) regulation of the activity of internal organs and physiological systems of the body (for example, nervous and humoral).

Physiology is an experimental science. It distinguishes two methods of research - experience and observation. Observation is the study of the behavior of an animal under certain conditions, usually over a long period of time. This makes it possible to describe any function of the body, but makes it difficult to explain the mechanisms of its occurrence. The experience is acute and chronic. The acute experiment is carried out only for a short time, and the animal is in a state of anesthesia. Due to the large blood loss, there is practically no objectivity. The chronic experiment was first introduced by I. P. Pavlov, who proposed to operate on animals (for example, fistula on the stomach of a dog).

A large section of science is devoted to the study of functional and physiological systems. The physiological system is a constant collection of various organs united by some common function.

The formation of such complexes in the body depends on three factors:

1) metabolism;

2) energy exchange;

3) exchange of information.

A functional system is a temporary set of organs that belong to different anatomical and physiological structures, but ensure the performance of special forms of physiological activity and certain functions. It has a number of properties such as:

1) self-regulation;

2) dynamism (disintegrates only after the desired result is achieved);

3) the presence of feedback.

Due to the presence of such systems in the body, it can work as a whole.

A special place in normal physiology is given to homeostasis. Homeostasis is a set of biological reactions that ensure the constancy of the internal environment of the body. It is a liquid medium, which is composed of blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, tissue fluid.