Liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century). Prerequisites for reforms

Judicial reform. When preparing the Peasant Reform, its authors understood the inevitability of all-round reforms. Therefore, almost simultaneously with the preparation of the liberation of the peasants, projects of other transformations are being developed, including judicial reform. The need to reform the entire judiciary was clear to liberals and conservatives alike. The structure of the judiciary was extremely cumbersome. In addition to estate courts for the burghers, nobles and state peasants, there were military, commercial, conscientious and others. The plurality of judicial bodies was combined with a lack of clarity in determining their competence. There were cases when a case started from one court was transferred to another, where the proceedings began again. With the complexity of the procedural requirements, some cases were resolved not for years, but for decades. The proceedings were in writing. The court was supposed to make its decision after reviewing the evidence. But not the members of the court, but the law determined which evidence should be given preference, and which should not be trusted at all (the system of formal evidence). The same procedural requirements were to be observed both in cases of serious crimes and in the consideration of a misdemeanor. Under these conditions, bribery flourished.

Thus, the entire judicial system was to be reformed. Initially, the reform was being prepared in the II department of its own e. and. V. office under the direction of Mr. D.N. Bludov. The count himself was not a liberal. But Tsar Alexander II and his younger brother led. book. Konstantin Nikolayevich well understood the need for reform. And the business of preparing the reform was transferred to the State Chancellery.

The actual leader of the work at this stage was S.I. Zarudny. Not only officials were involved in the development of the project. Specialists were invited as consultants - both theoretical scientists and practitioners, up to the ranks of the police. As a result of the work, by April 1862 the reform project was ready. Rather, it was three projects. Separately, changes in criminal and civil proceedings, as well as the reorganization of the judiciary, were considered. Approximately at the same time, the draft of the II branch on the organization of the world court was also ready. All four documents, after discussion in the State Council, were signed by Alexander II on November 20, 1864, marking the beginning of the judicial reform.

Litigation was divided into two stages: investigation and trial. The investigation remained in writing. The trial became oral. The principle of competitiveness of the parties was introduced. The defendant received the right to defense. The system of formal proofs was abolished. Now the judges, on the basis of inner conviction, ruled on the guilt or innocence of the defendant (it was no longer possible to "leave in suspicion"). The court became public. Courtroom doors were opened to the public, and court reports began to be printed in newspapers. All innovations inevitably had to simplify and speed up the passage of the case through the court. However, the application of the new principles of judiciary was not possible within the framework of the old system of judicial institutions.

The fundamental principles of the new judiciary were the independence of the court from the administration and all-classes. The independence of the judiciary was ensured by removing court cases from the jurisdiction of the police and other administrative bodies. In addition, crown judges were appointed to office for life. The removal of judges from office was allowed only by decision of the criminal court. Thus, the principle of irremovability of judges was implemented. Along with crown judges, criminal cases in district courts were considered by jurors. Very often peasants became jurors.

The overwhelming majority of jurors who were legally illiterate ruled only on the guilt or innocence of the defendant. If the defendant was found not guilty, the decision was enforced in the courtroom. Perhaps the most striking example of this is the acquittal of V.I. Zasulich. A member of the populist group, Vera Zasulich, wounded the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov, wanting to avenge the massacre of her comrade, and was acquitted by a jury.

In addition to the trial by jury, the institutions of the prosecutor's office and the legal profession ensured the competitiveness of the process. The institution of the prosecutor's office existed in Russia before. However, the prosecutor's office supervised the activities of the administrative apparatus. The authors of the judicial reform abandoned general supervision in order to concentrate the forces of the prosecutor's office to supervise the court and the investigation and maintain state prosecution.

The institution of advocacy was absolutely new for Russia. Realizing the need for competent protection of the interests of subjects in court, Nicholas I was still categorically against the introduction of the bar: "While I reign, Russia does not need lawyers, we will live without them." Such a sharp rejection of the legal profession is explained by the role that lawyers played in the revolution in France.

The authors of the reform approached the issue of advocacy differently. As soon as the process became adversarial, and the litigants received the right to protection, it was necessary to create special institutions to implement the new rules for conducting the process. A lawyer (attorney at law) was a representative, defender of the interests of one of the parties in the trial. For the client, one of the guarantees of the observance of his interests in court was the relative independence of the bar, the other was the high professional and moral requirements for the applicant for the position of attorney at law.

One of the advantages of the new judicial system was a significant reduction in the number of courts. Judicial bodies are built according to the significance of the criminal cases under consideration. For minor cases, world justice was established. All other cases, not limited either by the gravity of the crime or by the cost of a civil suit, were dealt with in general judicial institutions.

The World Court was also an innovation. The magistrates' courts considered cases that could end in reconciliation of the parties or the imposition of a small fine. Justices of the peace were elected. The election of judges, the simplicity of the trial, the absence of red tape - all this aroused the confidence of the population. Misdemeanors that had previously gone unpunished (petty harassment, fraud, theft) began to be considered by world justice.

Speaking about the merits of the reform, its shortcomings should also be noted. One of the serious shortcomings of the reform was the stage-by-stage implementation. As a result, the implementation of the reform dragged on for 35 years, officially ending in 1899. The reform, while creating an all-estate court, did not liquidate the volost court, which was the lowest instance for the peasants. And yet, despite a number of shortcomings, the judicial reform was the most consistent of all carried out in the 1960s and 1970s. 19th century transformations.

Along with criminal and civil justice, the military is also being reformed. The Military Judicial Charter of 1867 became part of both judicial and military reform.

military reform. The beginning of the military reform of the 60-70s. 19th century usually associated with the most obedient report of the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin on January 15, 1862. The shortcomings of the system of recruitment, training, and material and technical supply of troops that existed in Russia were most acutely manifested during the years of the Crimean War. It was necessary to overcome the backwardness of the country's military system. At the same time, the task was to reduce military spending. Therefore, one of the main tasks of the military reform was to reduce the size of the army in peacetime, with the possibility of a significant increase in time of war. The solution to the problem was the introduction of universal military service in 1874. All men aged 21–40 were required to complete active military service. The term of service in the army was set at six years, in the navy - seven years. This time was enough to develop the soldiers' skills in handling weapons and behavior in military operations. After the end of the term of active military service, the soldier was enrolled in the reserve (in the army - nine years, in the navy - three years). The law provided for the possibility of reducing the service life.

In addition to changing the terms of service in the army, and even before this change, the personnel training system was restructured. In 1863–1866 closed cadet corps were transformed into military gymnasiums. With the establishment of cadet schools, access to officer ranks was open to non-nobles. As for working with the privates, literacy became mandatory. Handshaking was prohibited. Cruel corporal punishment with whips, gauntlets, branding, etc. were abolished. In parallel with the change in the methods of training soldiers, the rearmament of the army was also going on. Since 1867, rifled guns have been adopted. Somewhat later, infantry, cavalry and Cossack troops are equipped with a Berdan rifle.

Conducted under the direction of D.A. Milyutin's reforms met with opposition in a certain part of the generals. However, their effectiveness was proven during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

Zemstvo reform. On January 1, 1864, Alexander II signed the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions." Zemstvo reform began. According to the "Regulations" in 1865-1876. zemstvos were created in 34 provinces of European Russia. The question of the need for reform was raised by the emperor himself as early as March 1859. It was obvious that the Peasant Reform would cause changes in the administrative apparatus. In connection with the preparation of the transformation of local authorities, the emperor ordered to discuss the need to provide economic management in the county with greater independence.

The reform project was developed by a commission formed in the Ministry of Internal Affairs chaired by N.A. Milyutin. The project proceeded from the idea that if every person is free to dispose of his own economy, then society should also be given the opportunity to dispose of the public economy. The range of affairs of zemstvo institutions was primarily limited to economic issues. Moreover, the zemstvos were forbidden to intrude into the competence of government bodies.

According to the law, zemstvo institutions were built on the principles of electivity and classlessness. However, the election of members of zemstvo institutions (zemstvo vowels) was carried out in three curiae: landowners, urban residents, and rural inhabitants. According to the law, half of the zemstvo vowels were elected by the first (noble) curia. The administrative body of local self-government was the zemstvo assembly, which elected members of the zemstvo council (executive body) for three years. The control of the administration over the activities of zemstvo institutions was carried out using the procedure for approving members of the administrations in positions. The budget was formed at the expense of taxes established by the zemstvo itself. At the same time, zemstvo vowels did not receive remuneration for their service.

urban reform. The city reform was carried out in 1870. The city government replaced the six-member City Duma. It was in charge of the administrative and economic affairs of the city: improvement, public education (mainly in the "economic" sense), health care, public charity, care for the development of trade and industry, credit, etc. City self-government bodies, like zemstvo institutions, were built on principles of election and non-association.

In addition to collecting state duties (this duty was assigned to zemstvo institutions by the government), local self-government dealt with a wide range of issues. Zemstvo institutions were engaged in studying the property status of the population and the level of economic development of individual regions. Zemstvos built roads and bridges. Much attention was paid to veterinary medicine and agronomy. Huge work to help the starving peasants fell on the zemstvos in lean years. But, perhaps, the main activities of the zemstvos were public health and education.

The reforms also affected education and the press. The “Charter of the Gymnasium” and the “Regulations on Public Schools” were published, which regulated primary education. In fact, an accessible all-class education was introduced. Along with the state schools, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical (based on the humanities) and real (dominated by "natural" subjects). They accepted children of all classes capable of paying tuition fees. New university statutes appeared, returning the autonomy to the universities, which was abolished by Nicholas I.

The "Temporary Rules" on the press abolished preliminary censorship for a number of printed publications: books intended for the wealthy and educated part of society, as well as central periodicals.

These reforms, in fact, brought Russia closer to the European socio-political model of the bourgeois monarchy. The initiators of the reforms were some government officials, the "liberal bureaucracy". Minister of the Interior M.T. Loris-Melikov even developed constitutional proposals. But the assassination of Emperor Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya debunked liberal illusions in society and changed the general direction of the government's course.

Obliged to deal with local economic affairs, zemstvos often intruded into the competence of government bodies. There were not enough teachers in the schools founded by the zemstvos. Teachers' seminaries were organized for the purpose of training personnel. And of course, the zemstvos intruded into the prerogative of the Ministry of Public Education. There are many examples of this kind. This led to a confrontation between government bodies and local self-government. The matter was complicated by the fact that the zemstvos became the base of the liberal opposition to the autocracy. Therefore, in the 80-90s. 19th century the government introduces a number of restrictions on the activities of zemstvo and city self-government.

populist movement. In the summer of 1861, a secret organization "Land and Freedom" was formed in St. Petersburg. It included N.A. and A.A. Serno-Solov'evich, A.A. Sleptsov, V.S. Kurochkin and others. Its program document was the proclamation "What the people need." Clarifying the understanding of the goals of the struggle, the members of the organization put forward demands: endowing the peasants with the necessary amount of land with a decrease in redemption payments, maintaining communal land ownership, introducing local self-government and nation-wide representation. The Petersburg circle established ties with student associations of higher educational institutions in the capital and other cities. The expulsions of participants in student unrest in the autumn of 1861 contributed to the expansion of ties with the province. The circle was also connected with Russian political emigrants (the editorial office of Kolokol in London).

In 1862 the composition of the central St. Petersburg circle changed. It included N.I. Utin, N.S. Kurochkin and others. At the same time, the name of the circle (“Land and Freedom”) was approved. Expecting a new upsurge in the peasant movement in 1863 (the deadline for the introduction of statutory charters), the landowners developed plans for a military-peasant revolution. The victory of the peasant uprising seemed certain if the army supported the rebels. The program of the organization has undergone a serious revision. It was assumed that as a result of the revolution, all the land would be transferred to the peasantry, the communal principles of self-government would extend to the cities. Both local and central governments were to be elected. A republican form of government should be established in Russia, class advantages should be abolished, equal rights for women and men should be introduced.

In 1863 the organization had fourteen branches. The Moscow branch alone numbered about 400 people. An underground printing house was set up, where two issues of "Freedom" were printed. However, instead of the expected rise, the peasant movement is on the decline. At the end of the year, Land and Freedom entered a period of ideological crisis. And in March 1864 the organization self-liquidated.

Land and Freedom was not the only underground organization. Independently of it, many small circles operated, the members of which also advocated the socialist future of Russia. However, some of these circles considered the priority not political, but economic transformations. Such was the circle of N.V. that arose in 1863 in Moscow. Ishutin. It was considered quite possible to convince the people of the advantages of socialist economic methods. But even within the circle, such views were not supported by everyone. And in 1865 the Ad group was organized. One of the members of this group, D.V. Karakozov, under the influence of talk of regicide, in 1866 made an unsuccessful attempt on Alexander II. The terrorist was executed, and the circle was destroyed.

Thus, with all the shades in understanding the goal of the struggle, the representatives of the radical direction agreed on the main thing - a social revolution is needed. It was also recognized that the peasantry is the main driving force of the revolution, and the community is a ready-made cell of the future society. These ideas will also be inherited by the Narodniks. At the same time, disagreements emerged on the question of how to achieve the goal. In disputes about the methods of preparation and conduct of the "social revolution" in the late 60s - early 70s. 19th century several directions of revolutionary populism are taking shape.

In the mid 60s. 19th century the theory of anarchism M.A. Bakunin. The stateless structure of society after the revolution was conceived by the author of anarchism not as the absence of any power. In place of the state, a federation of self-governing communities arose. The revolution in Russia, according to M.A. Bakunin, it's easy to ignite. After all, the Russian peasant is a revolutionary at heart. The duty of a revolutionary is only to inform the people of the beginning of the revolt.

A slightly different tactic of struggle was proposed by P.L. Lavrov. In his opinion, the intelligentsia is the leader of the masses in the struggle for social justice. Not considering the people ready for rebellion, he offered to prepare them for the perception of the ideas of socialism. The means of such training was to be systematic propaganda.

The ideologist of the third direction is usually called P.N. Tkachev. He believed that tsarism had no roots in the economic life of the people, did not embody the interests of any class, "hangs in the air." Therefore, the enemy of the intelligentsia is only the state power. Therefore, it is necessary to overthrow this power. However, in his opinion, a pre-created organization of conspirators should have started a social revolution. Further, everything "will happen by itself", since the people are "revolutionaries by instinct."

Ideas M.A. Bakunin were widely used in circles of the intelligentsia in the early 1870s. Under the influence of these ideas, in the summer of 1874 a mass "going to the people" began (hence the name of the populists). Hundreds of people went to the village to enter the peasant mass and prepare a general uprising in the shortest possible time. But the peasants turned out to be unprepared for an immediate revolt and often betrayed the populists to the authorities.

The experience of "going to the people" significantly undermined faith in the theory that the peasantry was ready for revolution. Another conclusion also suggested itself: they say, the enthusiasm of the participants in the first wave of "going to the people" did not bring positive results also because their activities were not coordinated by anyone, therefore, an organization capable of leading the movement is needed. Since 1876, such an organization has become "Land and Freedom". In order to prepare for a general popular uprising, the landlords moved on to organizing permanent settlements in the countryside. In order to propagate their ideas in word and deed, they got jobs as paramedics, teachers, zemstvo employees, etc. And again the populists are convinced of the unpreparedness of the people for the revolution. Among them, the belief in the need to fight for political freedoms is increasingly spreading. Disagreements over tactics lead in August 1879 to a split in Land and Freedom into two independent organizations. "Black redistribution" tried to continue propaganda in the village. Narodnaya Volya became a terrorist organization.

Terror as a method of fighting the government was also used by the landlords. The first victims of terror were government officials (St. Petersburg mayor, chief of gendarmes, etc.). In April 1879, another attempt was made on the emperor. Alexander II was shot by A.K. Solovyov. None of the five bullets even wounded the king.

This attempt opens the “hunt” of the Narodnaya Volya for the tsar, which lasted almost two years. The fact is that the attempt preceded the appearance of the "death sentence" to Alexander II, issued by the Executive Committee of "Narodnaya Volya". Unsuccessful attempts followed one after another. Some of them cost the lives of dozens of people (an explosion in the Winter Palace, carried out by S.N. Khalturin). The sentence was carried out only on the fifth attempt on March 1, 1881.

Arrests of the main figures of the "Narodnaya Volya" began on the eve of the regicide. After March 1, the main forces of the organization were defeated. Six March Firsts (A.I. Zhelyabov, S.L. Perovskaya, N.I. Kibalchich, T.M. Mikhailov, N.I. Rysakov, G.M. Gelfman) were sentenced to death. On April 3, five Narodnaya Volya members were hanged (G.M. Gelfman was pregnant, and her death penalty was commuted to imprisonment).

Previously, neither mass arrests nor high-profile trials were an obstacle to the expansion of the Narodniks' activities. However, March 1 once again showed the unpreparedness of the peasants for the revolution. The ideas of the Narodniks about a social revolution, the main driving force of which would be the peasantry, failed. As a result, populism is transformed from a revolutionary into a liberal movement.

The liberal reforms that were carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century were a logical continuation of the abolition of serfdom. The new social structure required changes in the administration and state system.

The course of modernizing the state was reinforced by urban, zemstvo, military and judicial reforms. Thanks to such transformations, the Russian autocracy adapted to the rapid development of capitalism in the state.

Judicial reform

In 1864, a new judicial system was introduced in the Russian Empire, which was regulated by the law “On New Judicial Charters”. The court became a democratic instance, it included representatives of all classes of society, the process became public, and the procedure for compulsory judicial competition was maintained.

The competence of the courts was strictly delimited; civil claims were considered in the magistrate's court, criminal offenses in the district court. The highest court was the Senate.

To consider political crimes, including those directed against the autocracy, special courts were organized, during the meetings of which the principle of publicity was excluded.

Military reform

The crushing defeat of the Russian troops in the Crimean War showed that the army based on recruitment is ineffective and in many ways loses to the European armed forces. Emperor Alexander II initiated the creation of a new army with a reserve of personnel.

Since 1874, all men over the age of 20 were required to undergo general military training, which lasted 6 years. Citizens of the Russian Empire who had a higher education were often exempted from military service. By the end of the 70s, the material and technical base of the army was completely updated - smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, a steel artillery system was introduced, and horse reserves were increased.

Also during this period, the steam fleet was actively developing. Educational institutions were opened in the state, in which military specialists were trained. Due to the fact that the Russian Empire did not participate in military confrontations, the imperial army was able to significantly strengthen and increase its combat effectiveness.

Zemstvo reform

After the adoption of the Peasant Reform, it became necessary to transform local governments. In 1864, the Zemstvo reform began to be introduced in the Russian Empire. Zemstvo institutions were formed in counties and provinces, which were elected bodies.

Zemstvos did not have political functions, mainly their competence included solving local problems, regulating the work of schools and hospitals, building roads, controlling trade and small industrial facilities.

Zemstvos were controlled by local and central authorities, who had the right to refute the decisions of these bodies or suspend their activities. City councils were created in the cities, which had the same powers as the zemstvos. The leading role in the zemstvos and city dumas belonged to representatives of the bourgeois class.

Despite the fact that the reforms had a very narrow structure and did not actually solve the problems of social and economic life, they became the first step towards the introduction of liberal democracy in the Russian Empire. Further introduction of reforms completely stopped the death of the emperor. His son Alexander II saw a completely different path of development for Russia.

Peasant Reform .............................................. .1

Liberal Reforms of the 60s-70s.......................................4

Establishment of zemstvos............................................ .4

Self-government in cities........................................ 6

Judicial reform............................................ 7

Military reform............................................... .8

Education reforms............................... ....10

Church in the period of reforms................................................. 11 Conclusion .......... ....................................…........ .13

Peasant reform .

Russia on the eve of the abolition of serfdom . The defeat in the Crimean War testified to the serious military-technical lag of Russia from the leading European states. There was a threat of the country sliding into the category of minor powers. The government could not allow this. Along with the defeat came the understanding that the main reason for Russia's economic backwardness was serfdom.

The enormous costs of the war seriously undermined the monetary system of the state. Recruitment, the seizure of livestock and fodder, the growth of duties ruined the population. And although the peasants did not respond to the hardships of the war with mass uprisings, they were in a state of intense expectation of the tsar's decision to abolish serfdom.

In April 1854, a decree was issued on the formation of a reserve rowing flotilla ("sea militia"). With the consent of the landowner and with a written obligation to return to the owner, serfs could also be recorded in it. The decree limited the flotilla formation area to four provinces. However, he stirred up almost all of peasant Russia. A rumor spread in the villages that the emperor was calling volunteers for military service and for this he freed them forever from serfdom. Unauthorized registration in the militia resulted in a mass exodus of peasants from the landlords. This phenomenon took on an even broader character in connection with the manifesto of January 29, 1855, on the recruitment of warriors into the land militia, covering dozens of provinces.

The atmosphere in the "enlightened" society has also changed. According to the figurative expression of the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, Sevastopol hit stagnant minds. “Now the question of the emancipation of serfs is on everyone’s lips,” wrote the historian K. D. Kavelin, “they talk about it loudly, even those who previously could not hint at the fallibility of serfdom without causing them to have nervous attacks think about it.” Even the tsar's relatives - his aunt, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, and younger brother Konstantin - advocated for the transformation.

Preparation of the peasant reform . For the first time, on March 30, 1856, Alexander II officially announced the need to abolish serfdom to representatives of the Moscow nobility. At the same time, knowing the mood of the majority of the landowners, he emphasized that it is much better if this happens from above than to wait until it happens from below.

On January 3, 1857, Alexander II formed a Secret Committee to discuss the issue of abolishing serfdom. However, many of its members, former Nicholas dignitaries, were ardent opponents of the liberation of the peasants. They hindered the work of the committee in every possible way. And then the emperor decided to take more effective measures. At the end of October 1857, Vilna Governor-General VN Nazimov arrived in St. Petersburg, who in his youth was Alexander's personal adjutant. He brought the appeal of the nobles of the Vilna, Kovno and Grodno provinces to the emperor. They asked permission to discuss the issue of freeing the peasants without giving them land. Alexander took advantage of this request and on November 20, 1857, sent Nazimov a rescript on the establishment of provincial committees from among the landlords to prepare draft peasant reforms. On December 5, 1857, St. Petersburg Governor-General P. I. Ignatiev received a similar document. Soon the text of the rescript sent to Nazimov appeared in the official press. Thus, the preparation of the peasant reform became public.

During 1858, "committees for improving the life of landlord peasants" were established in 46 provinces (officials were afraid to include the word "liberation" in official documents). In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich became its chairman. In March 1859 Editorial Commissions were established under the Main Committee. Their members were engaged in the consideration of materials coming from the provinces, and drawing up on their basis a general draft law on the emancipation of the peasants. General Ya. I. Rostovtsev, who enjoyed the emperor's special confidence, was appointed chairman of the commissions. He attracted to his work supporters of reforms from among the liberal officials and landowners - N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin, V. A. Cherkassky, Ya. ". They advocated the release of the peasants with a land allotment for redemption and their transformation into small landowners, while the landownership was preserved. These ideas were fundamentally different from those expressed by the nobles in the provincial committees. They believed that even if the peasants were to be liberated, then without land. In October 1860, the editorial commissions completed their work. The final preparation of the reform documents was transferred to the Main Committee, then they were approved by the State Council.

The main provisions of the peasant reform. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed a manifesto “On granting serfs the rights of the status of free rural inhabitants and on the organization of their life”, as well as the “Regulations on peasants who have emerged from serfdom”. According to these documents, the peasants, who previously belonged to the landlords, were declared legally free and received general civil rights. When they were released, they were given land, but in a limited amount and for ransom on special conditions. The land allotment, which the landowner provided to the peasant, could not be higher than the norm established by law. Its size ranged from 3 to 12 acres in various parts of the empire. If by the time of liberation there was more land in peasant use, then the landowner had the right to cut off the surplus, while land of better quality was taken from the peasants. According to the reform, the peasants had to buy the land from the landowners. They could get it for free, but only a quarter of the allotment determined by law. Until the redemption of their land plots, the peasants found themselves in the position of temporarily liable. They had to pay dues or serve corvee in favor of the landowners.

The size of allotments, dues and corvées were to be determined by an agreement between the landowner and the peasants - Charters. The temporary state could last for 9 years. At this time, the peasant could not give up his allotment.

The amount of the ransom was determined in such a way that the landowner would not lose the money that he had previously received in the form of dues. The peasant had to immediately pay him 20-25% of the value of the allotment. To enable the landowner to receive the redemption sum at a time, the government paid him the remaining 75-80%. The peasant, on the other hand, had to repay this debt to the state for 49 years with an accrual of 6% per annum. At the same time, calculations were made not with each individual, but with the peasant community. Thus, the land was not the personal property of the peasant, but the property of the community.

Peace mediators, as well as provincial presences for peasant affairs, consisting of the governor, government official, prosecutor and representatives of local landowners, were supposed to monitor the implementation of the reform on the ground.

The reform of 1861 abolished serfdom. The peasants became free people. However, the reform preserved serfdom remnants in the countryside, primarily landownership. In addition, the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, which means they did not have the opportunity to rebuild their economy on a capitalist basis.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Establishment of zemstvos . After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the former local administration showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital who led the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not ignore the moods of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which provided for the creation of elective zemstvos in the counties and provinces. Only men had the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, city voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 acres of land or other real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises that generate income of at least 6 thousand rubles a year, could be a voter in the landowning curia. The small landowners, uniting, put forward only representatives in the elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3,600 rubles (in large cities).

Elections but the peasant curia were multi-stage: at first, rural assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. Electors were first elected at volost gatherings, who then nominated representatives to county self-government bodies. At district assemblies, representatives from the peasants were elected to the provincial self-government bodies.

Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of vowels of all classes. Both in the counties and in the provinces, vowels were elected for a period of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The legitimacy of their activities was monitored by the governor. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax, which was imposed on real estate: land, houses, factories and trade establishments.

The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to the peasants on a scale that the state power was incapable of. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility prevailed in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses of the people.

Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where there was no noble landownership or was insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus did not receive local governments, since there were few Russians among the landowners.

self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the Zemstvo, a city reform was carried out. It introduced all-estate self-government bodies - city dumas, elected for four years. Vowels of the Dumas elected for the same period permanent executive bodies - city councils, as well as the mayor, who was the head of both the thought and the council.

The right to choose new governing bodies was enjoyed by men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curia. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers contributing another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. At the same time, each of them elected an equal number of vowels to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large owners in it.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. For all the limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the Zemstvo one, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform . The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; independence of judges; competitiveness of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; electivity of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general. The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city councils. High educational and property qualifications were established for judges. At the same time, they received rather high wages - from 2200 to 9 thousand rubles a year.

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 years old with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate in the amount of 2 thousand rubles. Jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the District Court's decision were made to the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Judicial Chamber also considered cases of malfeasance of officials. Such cases were equated with state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the publicity of trials. They were held openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers printed reports on trials of public interest. The competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer defending the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy. Outstanding lawyers F. N. Plevako, A. I. Urusov, V. D. Spasovich, K. K. Arseniev, who laid the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-orators, became famous in this field. The new judicial system retained a number of vestiges of estates. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and senior officials. In some national areas, the implementation of judicial reform dragged on for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kiev, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces), it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were forbidden to hold judicial office. In the Baltics, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the XIX century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, the appointment of magistrates took place, who simultaneously performed the functions of investigators, the jury trial was not introduced.

military reforms. Liberal transformations in society, the desire of the government to overcome backwardness in the military field, as well as to reduce military spending, necessitated fundamental reforms in the army. They were conducted under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. The children of the nobility studied mainly in these educational institutions. For those who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were admitted. In 1868, military progymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. Instead of recruitment sets, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later - from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years - active service, 9 years - in reserve. In the fleet - 10 years: 7 - valid, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from elementary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were released from service, as well as those recruits whose older brother was serving or had already served a term of active service. Those exempted from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Clerics of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to conscription. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army, punishment with rods was retained only for fines), food was improved, barracks were re-equipped, and literacy was introduced for soldiers. There was a rearmament of the army and navy: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast-iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; The rapid-fire rifles of the American inventor Berdan were adopted for service. The system of combat training has changed. A number of new charters, manuals, manuals were issued, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was needed in the war, significantly reducing the time for drill training.

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the time. The combat readiness of the troops has significantly increased. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone a significant restructuring. In June 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, according to which such educational institutions could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of various types of primary schools - state, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday, etc. The term of study in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classical and real. In the classical, a large place was given to the ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The term of study in them was at first seven years, and from 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were called upon to prepare "for occupations in various branches of industry and trade."

The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes. The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish guardianships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set.

In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish guardianships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but also had to help improve the financial situation of clergy. In 1869-79. incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for the clergy.

The liberal spirit of the reforms carried out in the field of education also touched church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, the children of the clergy were allowed to enroll in gymnasiums, and in 1866, in military schools. In 1867, the Synod passed resolutions on the abolition of the heredity of parishes and on the right to enter seminaries for all Orthodox without exception. These measures destroyed class partitions and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the legal recognition of the Old Believers took place: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold certain public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, they were forbidden to hold public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II in Russia, liberal reforms were carried out that affected all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant segments of the population received the initial skills of management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the estate advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where the free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers, in such a country political assassination as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in We set Russia as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence.” Comment on this document.

The emancipation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 1960s and 1970s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called the era of "great reforms" by liberal figures. Their consequence was the creation of the necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed it to follow the all-European path.

The pace of economic development has sharply increased in the country, and the transition to a market economy has begun. Under the influence of these processes, new sections of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landlord farms were increasingly involved in commodity-money relations.

The appearance of zemstvos, city self-government, democratic transformations in the judicial and educational systems testified to the steady, although not so fast, movement of Russia towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and incomplete. They retained the estate advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts of the reforms were implemented in an incomplete manner. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II was active in almost all main areas. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state succeeded in solving the foreign policy tasks facing it and restoring its position as a great power. At the expense of the Central Asian territories, the boundaries of the empire expanded.

The era of "great reforms" has become a time of transformation of social movements into a force capable of influencing power or resisting it. Fluctuations in the government's course and the inconsistency of the reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. The revolutionary organizations embarked on the path of terror, striving to raise the peasants to the revolution through the assassination of the tsar and high officials.

Political system

In the post-reform period, absolute monarchy was preserved in Russia, the emperor

enjoys unlimited power.

The State Council remained the highest deliberative body,

reviewing bills and codifying laws. With him

There were various commissions and committees.

The Senate remained the supreme body of judicial oversight. On the eve of the reforms

established the highest state body - the Council of Ministers, composed of the chairman

State Council, members of the Committee of Ministers, chief executives.

The emperor chairs it.

In the structure of ministries and departments during this period there were serious

changes, some ministries formed their local bodies, new ones were created

ministries. During the period of the growing development of capitalism in Russia, the

the role and importance of such state bodies as the Ministry of State

property, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Communications.

The work of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of its local bodies was improved

Provincial boards, provincial presences, county police departments, etc.

In the future, there is an increase in the repressive functions of the state apparatus, in

primarily against political opponents of the regime. According to the law of 1871

political cases began to be withdrawn from the jurisdiction of judicial investigators and transferred

gendarmerie. In 1882, a special law on police supervision was adopted.

In 1866-1867. in order to strengthen autocratic power, the power of

governors. All local institutions and officials were now subordinate to them,

the right to close zemstvo assemblies in case of violation of the rules was granted, and

zemstvos were forbidden to keep in touch with each other and publish without

the governor's permission to his ordinances and reports.

The Ministry of Justice exercised control over the judicial system of the country,

The Minister of Justice was in charge of the selection of judicial personnel and performed supervisory functions.

Russia, aggravated as a result of the defeat in the Crimean War, could be overcome

only by carrying out fundamental reforms, the main of which is the abolition of serfdom

law, which served as the main brake on the development of market relations in the country. 52

Alexander II, spoke in 1856 to the Moscow nobility, convinced them of

the need to abolish serfdom, pointing out that it is better to destroy it from above,

rather than wait until it begins to be destroyed from below.

In 1857, a Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs was created, which

was subsequently transformed into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, based

in their work for the provincial noble committees, from which proposals and

reform projects.

During the preparation of the reform, there was a sharp struggle between various

groupings of the nobility, which were divided into liberals and conservatives.

The Conservatives advocated the preservation of all landed property in the hands of the landlords.

and the landless liberation of the peasants, and the liberals are for the liberation of the peasants with land

and giving them civil rights.

As a result, the prepared reform was of a compromise nature and was

aimed, on the one hand, at the preservation of landownership, and on the other -

ensured, on the whole, that the peasants retained their pre-reform allotments of land for

approved the "General Regulations on the peasants who have emerged from serfdom." IN

compliance with the new laws, the serfdom of landlords over peasants was abolished

forever, and the peasants were declared free villagers with

civil rights and freedoms - the freedom to marry, independent

conclusion of contracts, the right to go to court, engage in business and

trade, change of residence, transition to another class, etc.

At the same time, the reform did not equalize the peasants with the landowners in their civil

rights. The peasants of each village who emerged from serfdom united in

rural society. Several rural communities formed a volost. in the villages and

volosts peasants were granted self-government. self-government body

rural society there was a gathering at which the peasants elected for 3 years of rural

headman and tax collector. The self-government body of the volost was also a gathering, on

which elected the volost board headed by the volost headman and the volost

judge to decide cases of unimportant misconduct and lawsuits of peasants.

The peasant was secured by the community and mutual responsibility in the community. Get out of

community was possible only by paying half of the remaining debt and on the condition that

the community will pay the other half.

position, titles, ranks estate organizations - provincial and district noble

assembly, political power and after the reform of 1861 remains in the hands of the nobility.

The abolition of serfdom required a radical renewal

state apparatus of Russia in the direction of gradual reform

absolute monarchy to constitutional. This has led to the adoption of a number

government reforms, including:

Financial reform 1862-1868 The financial reform was

only in the centralization of the financial economy of Russia in the hands of the Minister of Finance and

funding all government spending through the Ministry of Finance.

The state budget was prepared by the Ministry of Finance, and was considered

approved by the State Council.

Old taxes - poll and wine farming were replaced by land tax

and excises (wine, tobacco, salt, sugar were levied on them), which led to an increase in the revenue side

state budget. At the same time, government spending also increased.

In 1860, the State Bank was established, as well as a network of commercial

banks. Redemption operations were carried out by peasants established for these purposes53

and noble banks. The State Bank was also entrusted with the function of

financing of commercial and industrial enterprises. Centralized accounting

and control of state budget funds.

Military reform 1864-1874 The defeat in the Crimean War showed the whole

backwardness of the Russian military machine. The question arose of holding indigenous

transformations in the military sphere. In 1874, the "Charter on the military

conscription", which introduced universal military service for the entire male population.

Males over the age of 20 were called up for military service.

lot. Those who did not enter the service were enrolled in the militia. Length of service in the army

six years, followed by enrollment in the reserve for 9 years and in the fleet, respectively, seven

years of service, 3 years in reserve.

For those who graduated from higher educational institutions, the service life was reduced to 6

months, gymnasiums - up to one and a half years, city schools - up to 3 years and elementary schools -

Officers were trained in cadet schools, military gymnasiums and

military academies, preference for admission to them was given to the nobility.

The military reform was of progressive importance. She saved the people from

recruitment, accelerated the breakdown of the estate system, contributed to the development

railway network, since without railways it was not possible to conduct

broad mobilization of the retired.

Judicial reform of 1864. The pre-reform system of justice was

archaic and confusing. Historically, class courts for nobles, townspeople,

peasants, there were military, spiritual, commercial, boundary courts. Consideration

court cases took place behind closed doors. Judicial functions were often performed

administrative bodies. In serf Russia, the trial and reprisals against serfs often

done by the landlord himself. With the fall of serfdom, judicial reform became

inevitable.

In 1864, the main acts of judicial reform were approved:

judicial regulations, the Charter of criminal proceedings, the Charter of civil

of legal proceedings, the Charter on the punishments imposed by justices of the peace. In accordance with

these acts created two systems of courts - local and general. to the local

were:

1. Justices of the peace;

2. Congresses of justices of the peace.

The general courts were:

1. District courts for several counties;

2. Judicial chambers for civil and criminal cases established in each

a district consisting of several provinces or regions;

3. Cassation departments of the Senate.

The new judicial bodies were all-class, i.e. they dealt with criminal

civil affairs of all subjects of the empire, no matter what class they belong to.

The reform of the judiciary was based on new principles: the equality of all

before the law and the court, the separation of the court from the administration and the administration of justice

only by the court, the creation of an all-estate court, the publicity of the trial,

competitiveness of the parties, irremovability of judges and investigators, prosecutorial supervision,

election of justices of the peace and jurors.

In the course of the judicial reform, new institutions were created, such as the elected

world court, institutions of judicial investigators, jurors, advocacy,

prosecutors with one or more comrades (deputies) were established at the courts.

Judicial reform was the most radical of all carried out in the country

bourgeois reforms. Thanks to it, Russian justice has become on a par with the justice of the most54

advanced countries. As a result, there was a separation of the judiciary from other authorities,

preliminary investigation from the police and the court, the most democratic court was created

jurors.

The shortcomings of judicial reform include: limiting the role of the court

jury, the lack of unity of the judiciary, the exclusion of defense at the stage

preliminary investigation, etc.

During the police reform of 1862, the city and county police were

united into a single police system, including a police officer in the volost and

bailiff in the city, and at the county level - police officer. In the provincial cities at the head

police was the chief of police, who was subordinate to the governor, and led the entire

the country's police system is the minister of the interior. In 1880 into the police system

provincial gendarme departments were included. Detective and

security departments.

prison reform. In 1879, the management of prison institutions was

entrusted to the Main Prison Department. The situation of prisoners in some

relations have improved, a system of medical care has been established. However, to

Prisoners could also be subjected to special punishments: corporal punishment,

room in a punishment cell. Only in 1863 corporal punishment for women was abolished and

branding, but rods in places of deprivation of liberty were used until the February

revolution of 1917. Various types of imprisonment were used - in a fortress, in

correctional house, arrest, punishment in the form of exile to Sakhalin. Those who served hard labor

were transferred to the exiled settlers.

Land reform. Zemstvos were created to manage the local economy,

trade, public education, medical care, public

Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions, according to which

bodies of all-estate self-government - zemstvo assemblies. Elections of deputies to the zemstvo

the assembly was carried out according to the 3 curiae, were unequal and indirect:

1. Curia of county landowners with at least 200-800 acres of land (in

it was mainly the curia of the landlords);

2. City curia, whose members were supposed to have a high

property qualification, which cut off the poor. Workers and

craftsmen were also excluded from the elections.

3. The rural curia had a system of three-stage elections: peasants,

nominated to the volost meeting, sent their electors to the meeting,

which elected the deputies (vowels) of the Zemstvo.

District and provincial zemstvo assemblies met annually for 2-3 weeks to

solving the tasks assigned to them - and this is the approval of estimates of expenses and incomes, elections

executive bodies.

Unlike zemstvo assemblies, zemstvo councils were permanent

bodies that were in charge of all zemstvo affairs. The establishment of zemstvos was great

a step forward in the democratization of the entire system of government in Russia, beyond the historical

short period of their existence, a lot of work has been done to improve

welfare of the people, development of entrepreneurship, trade, education,

healthcare. Zemstvos brought up a whole galaxy of politicians of the liberal and

democratic direction, which played a big role in all spheres of life

society.

The shortcomings of the reforms include its incompleteness - there were no lower

(volost) and higher (all-Russian) links of the zemstvo system. Leadership and control

zemstvos were carried out by the nobility. Zemstvos were limited in material

means, although they had the right to tax the population with dues and duties on zemstvo55

needs, and also did not have their own executive apparatus, which reduced their

efficiency and increased dependence on state bodies.

City reform. In 1870, the "City Regulations" were approved, which

the system of all-estate self-government was also extended to cities. Any

city ​​inhabitant, regardless of class, had the right to vote in

election of deputies (vowels) under the following conditions:

1) Russian citizenship;

2) Age at least 25 years;

3) Compliance with the property qualification;

4) Absence of arrears in city fees.

Women participated in elections through representatives. The vote was

secret. All voters, in accordance with the property qualification, elected a third

deputies to the City Council. Thanks to this, the majority of vowels were elected from

wealthy segments of the population.

The Duma and the Council were elected for 4 years. Half of the council had to be updated

every two years. The Duma and the council were headed by the same person - the mayor,

which was approved by the governor or the Minister of the Interior. Activity

city ​​authorities was aimed at solving city affairs, primarily in the field of

city ​​property and various collections, development of culture, education,

healthcare, etc.

Thus, the establishment of city self-government gave impetus to the development

Russian cities, contributed to the formation of political social and

cultural organizations, the development of entrepreneurship and trade. disadvantage

reform was that the city self-government bodies were controlled and

subordinated to the tsarist administration, their independence was strictly limited,

material base is insufficient.

Emperor Alexander II (nicknamed the Liberator) carried out a number of liberal reforms in Russia. The reason for their was the backwardness of the state system, its inflexibility and injustice. The Russian economy and the authority of the state suffered from it. Orders and instructions from the authorities practically did not reach their destinations.

The aim of the reforms there was also a release of tension in society, the indignation that was caused by the too tough policy of the state and those in power. So, before you is a table with a list of reforms.

Abolition of serfdom

1. Landlords are deprived of the right to own peasants. Now you can not sell, buy peasants, separate their families, prevent them from leaving the village, and so on.

2. The peasants were obliged to buy their land plots from the landlords (at high prices) or rented it.

3. For renting land from a landowner, a peasant was obliged to serve a corvée or bring quitrent, but this corvee was now limited.

4. A peasant who used a leased plot of land from a landowner did not have the right to leave the village for 9 years.

Significance of the peasant reform did not appear immediately. Although formally people became free, the landowners continued to treat them like serfs for a long time, punished them with rods, and so on. The peasants did not receive land. Nevertheless, the reform was the first step in overcoming slavery and violence against the person.

Judicial reform

An elective position of justice of the peace is introduced. From now on, he is elected by the representatives of the population, and not appointed "from above".

The court becomes legally independent of the administrative authorities.

The court becomes public, that is, it is obliged to give the population access to its decisions and processes.

Established District Jury Court.

The Importance of Judicial Reform was the protection of the judiciary from the arbitrariness of the authorities and the possessors, the protection of the honesty of justice.

Zemstvo reform

The establishment of the zemstvo as a body of power to which the local population elected representatives.

Peasants could also participate in the Zemstvo elections.

The value of Zemstvo reform was the strengthening of local self-government and the participation of citizens of all classes in the life of society.

urban reform

City self-government bodies have been established, whose members are elected by city residents.

They receive the name of city councils and city dumas.

Reduced local taxes.

The police have been placed under the control of the central government.

The Importance of Urban Reform was the strengthening of local self-government and at the same time limiting the arbitrariness of local authorities.

Education reform

1. It is allowed to elect deans and rectors in universities.

2. The first university for women was opened.

3. Real schools were founded, where the emphasis was on teaching technical and natural sciences.

The Importance of Education Reform was the improvement of technical and women's education in the country.

Military reform

1. Reduced service life from 25 years to 7 years.

2. Limitation of the term of military service to 7 years.

3. Now not only recruits are called for military service (previously these were the poorest segments of the population, forcibly driven), but also representatives of all classes. Including the nobles.

4. Previously bloated, incapacitated army reduced by almost half.

5. A number of military schools have been set up to train officers.

6. Corporal punishment has been abolished, except for whipping in special cases.

Importance of military reform very large. A modern combat-ready army has been created that does not consume many resources. The military became motivated to serve (previously, recruiting was considered a curse, it completely broke the life of a conscript).