§ 67. International relations in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Europe at the BeginningXVII century

By the beginning of the XVII century. in Europe strengthened the influence of the Austrian dynasty Habsburgs representatives of which ruled in the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. The prospect of Spanish-Austrian joint actions was fraught with prerequisites for an aggravation of the conflict between the Habsburgs and France. Denmark and Sweden also could not reconcile with the strengthening of the Habsburg empire. Situation in Europe in the XVII century. complicated by the presence of the Ottoman threat. The entire south-east of Europe and most of Hungary came under the rule of the Turks.

Thirty Years' War.

A kind of continuation of the religious warriors of the sixteenth century. became the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). In addition to religious differences between Catholics and Protestants, its causes were the contradictions between the emperor and the princes in Germany, as well as the conflict between France and the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, where the Habsburgs ruled. The ruler of France, Cardinal A. Richelieu, dealt a decisive blow to the Huguenots in his country. However, in Germany he supported the Protestants who fought against the emperor. As a result, the intra-German conflict quickly escalated into a pan-European war. In 1618 in the Czech Republic, where from the time of the Hussite wars of the 15th century. strong positions were occupied by the Hussites close to the Protestants, an uprising against the emperor began. However, in 131620 the Czechs were defeated, which meant the end of the relative independence of the Czech Republic within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1629, Denmark was defeated, entering the war with the emperor at the call of the Protestant princes of Germany.
Then Sweden is drawn into the war, helped by France and Russia. swedish king Gustav II Adolf won several victories over the troops of the emperor, but died in 1632. In 1635, France openly began a war against the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. French and Swedes in the 40s. XVII century Catholic armies were smashed several times. In the course of many years of conflicts, all sides were guided by the principle “War feeds war” and mercilessly robbed the civilian population, which led to the terrible devastation of Germany.
In 1648, two peace treaties were concluded in Westphalia.
Sweden and France received increments at the expense of the Holy Roman Empire. According to the Peace of Westphalia, Sweden took possession of almost the entire southern coast of the Baltic Sea, becoming one of the strongest states in Europe. The Peace of Westphalia formalized the political fragmentation of Germany, in which the power of the emperor was reduced to zero, and the princes became independent sovereigns. Spain finally recognized Dutch independence.
International relations in the second half of the X7th-18th centuries
Second half of the seventeenth century became a period of strengthening of France in Europe. This was facilitated by the situation in other countries. Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were in crisis after the devastating Thirty Years' War. In England, after the restoration, the cousins ​​of the French king Louis XIV, who were dependent on him, ruled. Since 1672, Louis XIV waged wars to expand his possessions. The first two wars with Spain were successful, although it was not possible to annex the completely Spanish Netherlands to France, as her king dreamed of. A number of border regions went to France. In 1681, taking advantage of the attack on Vienna by the Turks, whom he supported and incited against Christian countries, Louis XIV captured Strasbourg. But that was where his success ended.
France's war of 1688-1697 with all European countries ended in vain. The French economy was undermined by continuous wars. Meanwhile, England was growing stronger. During the three Anglo-Dutch wars, in which England was supported by France, she managed to push her main competitor everywhere at sea and in the colonies. The colonial possessions of England grew rapidly. After the "glorious revolution" of 1689, the ruler of Holland, William of Orange, came to power in England. The situation in Europe has changed dramatically.
Wars of the 18th century
The last Spanish king from the Habsburg dynasty was childless. By will, he transferred his possessions to his closest relative - the grandson of Louis XIV. There was a prospect of uniting France and Spain. All the neighbors of France opposed this. War broke out in 1701. French and Spanish troops were defeated everywhere. The economy of France was further undermined. Only the disagreements of the enemies prevented the onset of complete catastrophe for her. In 1713-1714. treaties were concluded under which the grandson of Louis remained king of Spain, but the unification of the two countries was forever prohibited. France lost part of its colonies in America. The Netherlands and Spanish possessions in Italy passed to the Austrian Habsburgs.
In 1700 - 1721. The Northern War was undermining the power of Sweden. Russia won the Northern War and became one of the great powers.
In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out. King Frederick 11 of Prussia seized Silesia from Austria. Austria was supported by England, Russia and other countries. The remaining possessions of Austria managed to defend.
Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763 was the result of a sharp tangle of contradictions. The fighting was fought not only in Europe, but also in America, Asia, so the Seven Years' War is called the prototype of the world war. In Europe, France, Austria, Russia and a number of German states were at war with Prussia, led by Frederick N and its allies from among other German states. England helped Prussia, but did not fight directly in Europe. She, in alliance with Spain, captured all the French possessions in America (Canada and Louisiana) and India. Prussia was defeated by Russia, France also seized all the possessions of the English king in Europe. However, these victories were devalued after the coming to power of Peter III and Russia's withdrawal from the war. Borders in Europe, unlike other continents, remained unchanged.

§ 68. International relations in the XIX century.

The beginning of the French conquests.

In the course of the French Revolution and wars against counter-revolutionaries and monarchist states, a powerful revolutionary army was created in France. This predetermined the international position in Europe for a long time. It became the basis of France's success in a long series of wars that began in 1792.
After the victories of 1793 - 1794. Belgium and German lands on the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France, and Holland was turned into a dependent republic. The annexed areas were treated like conquered territories. Various requisitions were imposed on them, the best works of art were taken away. During the years of the Directory (1795 -1799), France sought to secure its dominance in Central Europe and Italy. Italy was considered a source of food and money and a convenient route to conquest in the future colonies in the East. In 1796-1798. general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy. In 1798, he began a campaign in Egypt, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire. The French occupation of Egypt threatened the English colonies in India. The fighting in Egypt was successful for the French, but the English Rear Admiral G. Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir. The French army was trapped and eventually destroyed. Bonaparte himself, leaving her, fled to France, where he seized power, becoming Emperor Napoleon in 1804. The defeat of France in Italy from the troops of the coalition consisting of Russia, England, Austria and Sardinia in 1798 -1799 contributed to the establishment of Napoleon's power. The allied forces in Italy were headed by A. V. Suvorov. However, due to the short-sighted policy of Austria and England, Emperor of Russia Pavel 1 withdrew from the coalition. After that, Bonaparte easily defeated Austria.

Napoleonic Wars.

Soon after the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor, wars of conquest resumed in order to solve internal problems by plundering neighbors.
Under Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Wagram (1809), Napoleon defeats the armies of Austria, Prussia, Russia, who fought with France as part of the third, fourth and fifth coalitions. True, in the war at sea, the French were defeated by England (especially at Trafalgar in 1805), which thwarted Napoleon's plans to land in Britain. During the Napoleonic Wars, Belgium, Holland, part of Germany west of the Rhine, part of Northern and Central Italy, and Illyria were annexed to France. Most other European countries have become dependent on it.
Since 1806, a Continental blockade has been established against England. Napoleonic domination contributed to the breakdown of the feudal order, but national humiliation and extortion from the population led to an intensification of the liberation struggle. A guerrilla war is unfolding in Spain. Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600,000-strong "great army". In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and Austria went over to their side. Napoleon was defeated. In 1814, the allies enter the territory of France and occupy Paris.
After Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba and the restoration of royal power in France in the person of Louis XVIII heads of state - allies in the anti-French coalition gathered in Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war world. The meetings of the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the news of Napoleon's return to power in 1815 (The Hundred Days). June 18, 1815 Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of A. Wellington and G. L Blucher at the battle of Waterloo defeated the troops of the French emperor.

Vienna system.

By decision of the Congress of Vienna, territorial increments were received by Russia (part of Poland), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), Prussia (part of Saxony, the Rhine region). The southern Netherlands went to Holland (until 1830, when Belgium was formed as a result of the revolution). England received the Dutch colonies - Ceylon, South Africa. 39 German states united in the German Confederation, while maintaining their full independence.
Peace and tranquility in Europe was called upon to maintain the union of all states, which was actually headed by the leading powers of the continent - Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and France. This is how the Vienna system came about. Despite the contradictions between the powers and the revolution in a number of countries, the Vienna system as a whole remained stable in Europe until the early 1950s. 19th century
Monarchs of European countries, united in the so-called Holy Union, gathered until 1822 at congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. According to the decisions of these congresses, interventions took place in the countries where revolutions began. The Austrian invasion extinguished the revolution in Naples and Piedmont, France intervened in the revolutionary events in Spain. An invasion of Latin America was also being prepared to suppress the national liberation struggle there. But England did not benefit from the appearance of the French in Latin America, and she turned to the United States for help. In 1823 the President of the United States Monroe defended the entire American continent from Europeans. Simultaneously, it was the first US claim to control all of America.
The 1822 Congress at Verona and the invasion of Spain were the last common actions of the members of the Holy Alliance. The recognition by England in 1824 of the independence of the Latin American countries, the former Spanish colonies, finally undermined the unity of the Holy Alliance. In 1825-1826. Russia changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against Turkey, providing support to the Greeks, while Austria's position on this issue remained sharply negative. The ever expanding liberal movement in the European powers, the development of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in all countries, shook the Holy Alliance to its foundations.

International relations in the second half of the XIX century.

The Vienna system finally collapsed after the revolutions of 1848-1849. The intensified contradictions between Russia, on the one hand, and England and France, on the other, led to the Eastern (Crimean) War of 1853-1856. Russia was defeated by a coalition of England, France, Turkey and the Kingdom of Sardinia, which were openly supported by Austria and secretly by Prussia. As a result of the war, Russia's positions on the Black Sea were shaken.
France became one of the leading European powers. Emperor of France Napoleon III helped Italy in her war against the Austrian Empire. For this, Italy lost Savoy and Nice. Preparations began for the capture of the left bank of the Rhine by France. Prussia began to prepare for wars for the unification of Germany. During the Franco-Prussian (Franco-German) war of 1870-1871. Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat. Alsace and Lorraine went to united Germany.

At the end of the XIX century. contradictions between the powers became even more aggravated. The colonial rivalry of the great powers intensified especially. The most acute were the contradictions between England, France and Germany.
On May 20, 1882, a secret treaty was signed between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary, according to which Germany and Austria-Hungary undertook to support Italy in the event of an attack on the latter France, and Italy undertook the same obligation with regard to Germany. All three powers pledged to go to war with the attacking states. Italy, however, stipulated that in the event of an attack by England on Germany or Austria-Hungary, she would not provide assistance to the allies. With the signing of this agreement, Triple Alliance.
At the beginning of 1887, it seemed that war between France and Germany was inevitable, but the latter had to abandon it, since Russia was ready to help France.
The Franco-German military alarm coincided in time with the aggravation of relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary. As soon as the Austro-German-Russian treaty of neutrality expired, Russia did not want to re-conclude it with the participation of Austria-Hungary. Germany decided to agree to a bilateral agreement with Russia - the so-called "reinsurance agreement". According to the treaty, both parties were obliged to remain neutral in the event of a war of either side with another power. At the same time, Germany pursued a policy of aggravating relations with Russia. But this led to a rapprochement between Russia and France - the main enemy of Germany.
The eyes of France turned to Russia. The volume of foreign trade between the two countries continuously increased. Significant French investments in Russia and large loans provided by French banks contributed to the rapprochement of the two states. Germany's hostility to Russia was also becoming more and more clear. In August 1891, an agreement was concluded between France and Russia, and a year later, a military convention. In 1893, the union was finally formalized.
The sharp struggle of England with France and Russia supported the aspirations of part of her ruling circles to come to an agreement with Germany. The British government twice tried to buy German support for the Axis with the promise of colonial compensation, but the German government demanded such a price that England refused the deal. In 1904-1907. an agreement was drawn up between England and France and Russia, called the "Triple Accord" - Entente (translated from French - "cordial agreement"). Europe was finally divided into hostile military blocs.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the Great geographical discoveries? What are their reasons?
Tell us about the main discoveries. What were their consequences?
2. What changes took place in the economies of the leading countries in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries? What inventions contributed to these changes?
3. What is the Renaissance? What were his main ideas? What are the achievements of the Renaissance figures?
4. What are the causes of the Reformation? What were the currents in the Reformation?
How did the Catholic Church fight the Reformation? What are the consequences of the Reformation?
5. What is absolutism and what are the reasons for its occurrence? What are the features of absolutism in different countries?
6. Why did the English Revolution happen? Describe its course and consequences.
7. How did the formation of the USA? What is the significance of this event?
8. What are the causes of the French Revolution? Tell us about its course and the forces involved in it. Why are they talking about the world-historical significance of this revolution?
9. Describe the main styles and tell about the main achievements of Western European culture in the 17th-18th centuries.
10. What is the Age of Enlightenment?
11. List the reforms carried out in Russia in the middle of the 16th century?
What are their results?
12. What is oprichnina? What is its meaning and consequences?
13. How did the enslavement of peasants in Russia take place?
14. What is the Time of Troubles? List the main events of this period. What made it possible to defend the independence of Russia?
15. How did the Russian economy develop in the 17th century? What was new in the economy then?
16. What was the significance of the development of Siberia?
17. What changes in public administration took place in Russia in the 17th century?
18. Describe the popular uprisings of the 17th century.
19. Tell us about Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century.
20. What changes took place in the internal life of Russia and its international position during the reign of Peter 1?
21. Describe Peter the Great.
22. What is the era of palace coups? How did the economy and social system of Russia develop in this era?
23. Tell us about the main events of domestic and foreign policy in the era of palace coups.
24. What is "enlightened absolutism"?
25. How did the economy and social sphere develop during the reign of Catherine II?
26. What are the reasons for the peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev?
27. What are the achievements of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century? What are the reasons for the victories of Russian weapons?

28. What are the main achievements of Russian culture in the 16th - 18th centuries?
29. What were the features of the development of the Ottoman Empire Ki-
Thai, India in the 16th - 18th centuries?
30. How did the colonial expansion of Europeans take place in the 16th-18th centuries?
31. What is the industrial revolution? How did the economy of the advanced countries develop in the 19th century?
32. What changes took place in the political life of Europe and the USA in the 19th century? What socialist doctrines arose during this period? What is the essence of Marxism?
33. What are the main achievements of European culture in the 19th century?
34. Tell us about the main events in the domestic and foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. Why did Russia defeat Napoleon?
35. What are the causes and goals of the Decembrist movement? What is its meaning?
36. Expand the main directions of domestic and foreign policy of Nicholas 1. Why was Russia defeated in the Crimean War?
37. What are the main directions of social thought in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century?
38. Describe the main reforms carried out in Russia in the 60s and 70s.
19th century What are their causes and significance? What are counter reforms? .
39. Tell us about the social movement during the reign of Alexander P.
What is populism and what is its significance?
40. What are the achievements of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century?
41. What was the flourishing of Russian culture in the 19th century?

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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY Textbook General History. New time. Grade 9 (Medyakov A.S., Bovykin D.Yu.) History teacher GBOU secondary school No. 456 Morozova A.A.

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EUROPE TO THE LAST DECADES OF THE XIX CENTURY Wars of the late 1860s and early 1870s led to the emergence of two new great powers - Germany and Italy. The emergence of the first was especially important. For centuries, the center of Europe has been a conglomeration of many weak states. Now there was a powerful state with the second largest population in Europe, a developed economy and a strong army. Italy was the weakest of the great powers. But her very appearance increased their number to 6, which changed the usual layouts.

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As a result of the same wars, Austria not only lost its centuries-old leadership in the German world, but was simply thrown out of it. From now on, the Habsburgs were left with the only possible direction of foreign policy - the Balkans. The acuteness of the national problem also pushed there. Realizing that this could lead to a clash with Russia, Vienna hoped for German help. "Stretch out your hand to Germany and show your fist to Russia" - that's what became the motto of Austria-Hungary. Russia took advantage of the Franco-German war to abandon the humiliating decisions of the Congress of Paris in 1856, and also stepped up its eastern policy. England continued to pursue a policy of "brilliant isolation", although many politicians were worried about the growth of German power. France was defeated and lost Alsace and Lorraine. From now on, she sought revenge, dreaming of taking revenge on Germany and regaining the lost provinces. The system of international relations could not fail to respond to all these innovations.

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THE CRISIS OF THE VIENNA SYSTEM The main goal of the Vienna system was the preservation of peace, stability and monarchical order in Europe. It sought to contain revolutionary and national movements and prevent wars between the great powers. By the last decades of the XIX century. all this remained in the past: from now on, revolutions no longer led to wars on a European scale, and the “principle of nationalities” made its way and led to the emergence of new states. Therefore, the need for cooperation against revolutions and national movements disappeared. The Crimean War opened the era of wars in which all the great powers took part without exception. The “European concert” and readiness for compromises were replaced by real politics, which demanded to be guided solely by the interests of one's own state. But a return to the times of the Old Order, when an unstable balance was spontaneously born from the clashes of selfish states, did not happen. Bismarck's system of alliances acted as a regulator of international relations.

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BISMARCK'S SYSTEM OF UNIONS Bismarck understood that the huge empire he created was an alien body in the center of Europe and a disturber of its balance. According to all previous canons, those who disturbed the balance should have been wary of a coalition of other states against themselves, especially since France did not hide its desire for revenge. But the German chancellor played ahead of the curve. He himself began to create alliances in order to prevent France from getting allies and not only to find a united Germany a place in Europe, but also to achieve its leadership.

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THE BISMARCK SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES In 1879, Germany concluded a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary against Russia and France. In 1882, Italy joined him - this is how the Tripartite Alliance arose. The year before, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia had formed the Three Emperors Alliance, promising each other neutrality in the event of war with a non-alliance power. In the early 1880s. Romania and Serbia were included in Bismarck's system of alliances. In 1887, Austria-Hungary, England and Italy signed an agreement on the inadmissibility of changes in the Mediterranean basin, directed against France and Russia.

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BISMARCK'S SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES As a result, Germany found itself at the center of a complex system of alliances that, in one way or another, linked all the great powers, leaving only France isolated. This system was full of contradictions. The anti-Russian Triple Alliance contradicted the Union of the Three Emperors, of which Russia was a member. Within the Triple Alliance, Italy laid claim to the Austrian lands inhabited by Italians, and in the Alliance of the Three Emperors, Austria-Hungary and Russia competed over the Balkans. But it was precisely these contradictions that Bismarck needed.

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"WORLD POLITICS" Meanwhile, other times began in Germany itself. If Bismarck wanted to defend what he had conquered, then the new Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918) found such a policy old-fashioned, he wanted more. In 1890, Bismarck was dismissed, and then the Kaiser announced that Germany was moving to "world politics": henceforth, German interests were not concentrated only in Europe, as under Bismarck, but extended to the entire globe. A lot has changed immediately.

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"WORLD POLITICS" In 1890, Germany refused to renegotiate the "reinsurance pact" with Russia. Having lost a longtime ally and warring with Austria-Hungary, Russia had no choice but to get closer to France, especially since she supplied her with large loans. In 1891-1894. a Russo-French alliance was concluded. Thus, along with the Triple Alliance, a second pole of power arose in Europe. Previously, alliances were formed on the threshold of war and with specific goals. Bismarck initiated a completely new phenomenon - long-term alliances concluded in peacetime. But for him, alliances were a tool for regulating international relations. Now the split of Europe into two opposing camps has begun.

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ANGLO-GERMAN CONTRADICTIONS Gradually, not only Russia began to draw closer to France, but also England, which Germany's "world politics" touched in the first place. Since Germany was late to the division of the world, its claims to "world politics" meant its redistribution, and England had the strongest positions outside Europe. In addition, English industry suffered the most from German competition. Particularly painful in London was perceived by the Germans for the construction of a railway from Constantinople to Baghdad (1899). If successful, the Germans could extend their influence up to the approaches to India, which the British sharply opposed. However, the last straw was the accelerated construction of the German fleet, which began in 1898. In order to carry out "world politics", the Germans wanted to catch up with the British in terms of the power of their fleet. In England, it was believed that the whole British Empire was being challenged, the main condition for the existence of which was unhindered maritime communications between its parts. An unbridled naval arms race between England and Germany was launched.

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All these tensions between the two countries soon turned into antagonism (an irreconcilable contradiction), which pushed the British to abandon their “brilliant isolation” and move closer to France and Russia. Anglo-German antagonism became the main international contradiction of the era. To prevent the growing threat of war, on the initiative of Russia, in 1899 the Peace Conference was held in The Hague. It was proposed to resolve conflicts between countries peacefully through the creation of a special international court, and in the event of war to abandon especially cruel types of weapons. However, Germany agreed with this only for appearances. Wilhelm II declared to his close associates that he had signed "this nonsense", but in practice he would rely "only on God and his sharp sword."

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ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE XX CENTURY Powers entered the new century in an atmosphere of growing contradictions. The long-term alliance between Russia and Germany was replaced by enmity. Having abandoned the "reinsurance agreement", Germany tightly tied itself to its only true ally - Austria-Hungary - and together with it opposed Russia in the Balkans. Ideas about an imminent "racial war" with Russia were spreading in German public opinion. The situation in the Balkans was aggravated not only because of the rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Russia, but also in connection with the growing contradictions between the Balkan states themselves and their often irresponsible policies. Having received support in the face of an alliance with Russia, revanchist sentiments in France strengthened. Against the backdrop of an alarming international situation in society, moods of the “end of the century” arose: everyone felt that the old era was ending, and they were waiting for the onset of a new one not only with hope, but also with fear. The First World War was approaching.

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Friction between individual countries distracted them from the main problem for Bismarck - the revanchism of France. In addition, they provided Germany with an extremely advantageous position. Quarreling among themselves, various countries involuntarily provided Germany with the position of a kind of judge, conciliator, who had the final say in European affairs. Therefore, Bismarck kindled the rivalry between England and France in colonial affairs, and between Russia and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, never taking it to the extreme. But this did not always work out. After another crisis in the Balkans, Austria-Hungary and Russia refused to renew the Union of the Three Emperors. It was replaced by the "reinsurance agreement" of 1887 with approximately the same conditions, but only between Germany and Russia.

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SUMMING UP In the last decades of the XIX century. in many Western countries there was a successful industrialization - the transformation of industry into the leading sphere of the economy. During the Second Industrial Revolution, new industries appeared - chemical, electrical, automotive. This progress has been uneven. Germany and the United States achieved the greatest success, where modern technologies developed most rapidly. In them, the most widespread were monopolies that restrained free competition. At the same time, England lost its former leadership, the pace of France's economic development was moderate, Austria-Hungary and Italy were just beginning the path of industrialization.

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SUMMING UP Gradually, the position of the lower classes of the population improved. This was due both to the growth of the economy as a whole, and to the struggle of workers and peasants for their rights. In Germany, the social security system has taken the first steps. The rise in living standards began to reduce the severity of social conflicts. New parties appeared, suffrage expanded, but electoral qualifications remained in a number of countries. In Germany and the United States, despite the breadth of suffrage, democratization was hampered by flaws in the political system. Tension grew in the international arena. Germany made claims to the redistribution of the already divided world, contradictions deepened in the Balkans, Europe split into two camps. The threat of war grew.

The beginning of the French conquests. In the course of the French Revolution and wars against counter-revolutionaries and monarchist states, a powerful revolutionary army was created in France. This predetermined the international position in Europe for a long time. It became the basis of France's success in a long series of wars that began in 1792.

After the victories of 1793-1794. Belgium and German lands on the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France, and Holland was turned into a dependent republic. The annexed areas were treated like conquered territories. Various requisitions were imposed on them, the best works of art were taken away. During the years of the Directory (1795-1799), France sought to secure its dominance in Central Europe and Italy. Italy was considered a source of food and money and a convenient route to conquest in the future colonies in the East. In 1796 - 1798. general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy. In 1798, he began a campaign in Egypt, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire. The French occupation of Egypt threatened the English colonies in India. The fighting in Egypt was successful for the French, but the English Rear Admiral G.Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir. The French army was trapped and eventually destroyed. Bonaparte himself, leaving her, fled to France, where he seized power, becoming Emperor Napoleon in 1804.

The establishment of Napoleon's power was facilitated by the defeat of France in Italy from the troops of the coalition consisting of Russia, England, Austria and Sardinia in 1798 - 1799. Allied forces in Italy were headed by A. V. Suvorov. However, due to the short-sighted policies of Austria and England, Emperor Paul I of Russia withdrew from the coalition. After that, Bonaparte easily defeated Austria.

Napoleonic Wars. Soon after the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor, wars of conquest resumed in order to solve internal problems by plundering neighbors.

Under Austerlitz (1X05), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Wagram (1809), Napoleon defeats the armies of Austria, Prussia, Russia, who fought with France as part of the third, fourth and fifth coalitions. True, in the war at sea, the French were defeated by England (especially at Trafalgar in 1805), which thwarted Napoleon's plans to land in Britain. During the Napoleonic Wars, Belgium, Holland, part of Germany west of the Rhine, part of Northern and Central Italy, and Illyria were annexed to France. Most other European countries have become dependent on it.

Since 1806, a Continental blockade has been established against England. Napoleonic domination contributed to the breakdown of the feudal order, but national humiliation and extortion from the population led to an intensification of the liberation struggle. A guerrilla war is unfolding in Spain. Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600,000-strong "great army". In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and Austria went over to their side. Napoleon was defeated. In 1814, the allies enter the territory of France and occupy Paris.

After Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba and the restoration of royal power in France in the person of Louis XVIII the heads of the allied states in the anti-French coalition gathered in Vienna to resolve the issues of the post-war world. The meetings of the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the news of Napoleon's return to power in 1815 (The Hundred Days). June 18, 1815 Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command A. Wellington And G. L. Blucher at the battle of Waterloo defeated the troops of the French emperor.

Vienna system. By decision of the Congress of Vienna, territorial increments were received by Russia (part of Polynia), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), Prussia (part of Saxony, the Rhine region). The southern Netherlands went to Holland (until 1830, when Belgium was formed as a result of the revolution). England received the Dutch colonies - Ceylon, South Africa. 39 German states united in the German Confederation, while maintaining their full independence.

Peace and tranquility in Europe was called upon to maintain an alliance of all states, which was actually headed by the leading powers of the continent - Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and also France. This is how the Vienna system came about. Despite the contradictions of the powers and the revolution in a number of countries. The Vienna system as a whole remained stable in Europe until the early 1950s. 19th century

Monarchs of European countries, united in the so-called holy union, gathered until 1822 for congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. According to the decisions of these congresses, interventions took place in the countries where revolutions began. The Austrian invasion extinguished the revolution in Naples and Piedmont, France intervened in the revolutionary events in Spain. An invasion of Latin America was also being prepared to suppress the national liberation struggle there. But England did not benefit from the appearance of the French in Latin America, and she turned to the United States for help. In 1823 the President of the United States Monroe defended the entire American continent from Europeans. Simultaneously, it was the first US claim to control all of America.

The Congress of 1S22 at Verona and the invasion of Spain were the last common actions of the members of the Holy Alliance. The recognition by England in 1824 of the independence of the Latin American countries, the former Spanish colonies, finally undermined the unity of the Holy Alliance. In IS25-1826 Russia changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against Turkey, providing support to the Greeks, while Austria's position on this issue remained sharply negative. The ever expanding liberal movement in the European powers, the development of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in all countries, shook the Holy Alliance to its foundations.

International relations in the second half of the XIX century. The Vienna system finally collapsed after the revolution of 1848-1849). The intensified contradictions between Russia, on the one hand, and England and France, on the other, led to the Eastern (Crimean) War of 1853-1856. Russia was defeated by a coalition of England, France, Turkey and the Kingdom of Sardinia, which were openly supported by Austria and covertly by Prussia. As a result of the war, Russia's positions on the Black Sea were shaken.

France became one of the leading European powers. Emperor of France Napoleon 111 helped Italy in her war against the Austrian Empire. For this, Italy lost Savoy and Nice. Preparations began for the capture of the left bank of the Rhine by France. Prussia began to prepare for wars for the unification of Germany. During the Franco-Prussian (Franco-German) war of 1870-1871. Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat. Alsace and Lorraine went to united Germany.

At the end of the XIX century. contradictions between the powers became even more aggravated. The colonial rivalry of the great powers intensified especially. The most acute were the contradictions between England, France and Germany.

May 20, 1882 between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary was signed secret an agreement under which Germany and Austria-Hungary undertook to act in support of Italy in the event of an attack on the latter by France, and Italy undertook the same obligation against Germany. All three powers pledged to go to war with the attacking states. Italy, however, stipulated that in the event of an attack by England on Germany or Austria-Hungary, she would not provide assistance to the allies. With the signing of this agreement, Triple Alliance.

IN early 1887, it seemed that the war between France and Germany was inevitable, but the latter had to abandon it, since Russia was ready render help from France.

The Franco-German military alarm coincided in time with the aggravation of relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary. As soon as the Austro-German-Russian treaty of neutrality expired. Russia did not want to conclude it again with the participation of Austria-Hungary. Germany decided to agree to a bilateral agreement with Russia - the so-called "reinsurance agreement". According to the treaty, both parties were obliged to remain neutral in the event of a war of either side with another power. At the same time, Germany pursued a policy of aggravating relations with Russia. But this led to a rapprochement between Russia and France - the main enemy of Germany.

The eyes of France turned to Russia. The volume of foreign trade between the two countries continuously increased. Significant French investments in Russia and large loans provided by French banks contributed to the rapprochement of the two states. Germany's hostility to Russia was also becoming more and more clear. In August 1891, an agreement was concluded between France and Russia, and a year later, a military convention. In 1893, the union was finally formalized.

The sharp struggle of England with France and Russia supported the aspirations of part of her ruling circles to come to an agreement with Germany. The British government twice tried to buy German support with the promise of colonial compensation, but the German government demanded such a price that England refused the deal. In 1904-1907. an agreement was drawn up between England and France and Russia, called "Triple Entente"- Entente(translated from French - "cordial consent"). Europe was finally divided into hostile military blocs.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the Great geographical discoveries? What are their reasons? Tell us about the main discoveries. What were their consequences?

2. What changes took place in the economies of the leading countries in the 16th - 18th centuries? What inventions contributed to these changes?

3. What is the Renaissance? What were his main ideas? What are the achievements of the Renaissance figures?

4. What are the causes of the Reformation? What were the currents in the Reformation? How did the Catholic Church fight the Reformation? What are the consequences of the Reformation?

5. What is absolutism and what are the reasons for its occurrence? What are the features of absolutism in different countries?

6. Why did the English Revolution happen? Describe its course and consequences.

7. How did the formation of the USA? What is the significance of this event?

8. What are the causes of the French Revolution? Tell us about its course and the forces involved in it. Why are they talking about the world-historical significance of this revolution?

9. Describe the main styles and tell about the main achievements of Western European culture of the 17th-16th centuries.

10. What is the Age of Enlightenment?

11. List the reforms carried out in Russia in the middle of the 16th century? What are their results?

12. What is oprichnina? What is its meaning and consequences?

13. How did the enslavement of peasants in Russia take place?

14. What is the Time of Troubles? List the main events of this period. What made it possible to defend the independence of Russia?

15. How did the Russian economy develop in the 17th century? What was new in the economy then?

16. What was the significance of the development of Siberia?

17. What changes in public administration took place in Russia in the 16th century?

18. Describe the popular uprisings of the 17th century.

19. Tell us about the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century.

20. What changes took place in the internal life of Russia and its international position during the reign of Peter I?

21. Describe Peter the Great.

22. What is the era of palace coups? How did the economy and social system of Russia develop in this era?

23. Tell us about the main events of domestic and foreign policy in the era of palace coups.

24. What is "enlightened absolutism"?

25. How did the economy and social sphere develop during the reign of Catherine II?

26. What are the reasons for the peasant war led by N.I. Pugachev?

27. What are the achievements of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century? What are the reasons for the victories of Russian weapons?

28. What are the main achievements of Russian culture in the 16th-18th centuries?

29. What were the features of the development of the Ottoman Empire, China, India in the XVI-XVIII centuries?

30. How did the colonial expansion of Europeans take place in the XVI -

31. What is the industrial revolution? How did the economy of the advanced countries develop in the 19th century?

32. What changes took place in the political life of Europe and the USA in the 19th century? What socialist doctrines arose during this period? What is the essence of Marxism?

33. What are the main achievements of European culture in the 19th century?

34. Tell us about the main events in the domestic and foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. Why did Russia defeat Napoleon?

35. What are the causes and goals of the Decembrist movement? What is its meaning?

36. Expand the main directions of domestic and foreign policy of Nicholas I. Why was Russia defeated in the Crimean War?

37. What are the main directions of social thought in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century?

38. Describe the main reforms carried out in Russia in the 60s and 70s.

19th century What are their causes and significance? What are counter reforms?

39. Tell us about the social movement during the reign of Alexander II. What is populism and what is its significance?

40. What are the achievements of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century?

41. What was the flourishing of Russian culture in the 19th century?

§ 68. International relations in the XIX century.

The beginning of the French conquests.

In the course of the French Revolution and wars against counter-revolutionaries and monarchist states, a powerful revolutionary army was created in France. This predetermined the international position in Europe for a long time. It became the basis of France's success in a long series of wars that began in 1792.

After the victories of 1793 - 1794. Belgium and German lands on the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France, and Holland was turned into a dependent republic. The annexed areas were treated like conquered territories. Various requisitions were imposed on them, the best works of art were taken away. During the years of the Directory (1795 -1799), France sought to secure its dominance in Central Europe and Italy. Italy was considered a source of food and money and a convenient route to conquest in the future colonies in the East. In 1796-1798. general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy. In 1798, he began a campaign in Egypt, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire. The French occupation of Egypt threatened the English colonies in India. The fighting in Egypt was successful for the French, but the English Rear Admiral G. Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir. The French army was trapped and eventually destroyed. Bonaparte himself, leaving her, fled to France, where he seized power, becoming Emperor Napoleon in 1804.

The defeat of France in Italy from the troops of the coalition consisting of Russia, England, Austria and Sardinia in 1798 -1799 contributed to the establishment of Napoleon's power. The allied forces in Italy were headed by A. V. Suvorov. However, due to the short-sighted policy of Austria and England, Emperor of Russia Pavel 1 withdrew from the coalition. After that, Bonaparte easily defeated Austria.

Napoleonic Wars.

Soon after the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor, wars of conquest resumed in order to solve internal problems by plundering neighbors.

Under Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Wagram (1809), Napoleon defeats the armies of Austria, Prussia, Russia, who fought with France as part of the third, fourth and fifth coalitions. True, in the war at sea, the French were defeated by England (especially at Trafalgar in 1805), which thwarted Napoleon's plans to land in Britain. During the Napoleonic Wars, Belgium, Holland, part of Germany west of the Rhine, part of Northern and Central Italy, and Illyria were annexed to France. Most other European countries have become dependent on it.

Since 1806, a Continental blockade has been established against England. Napoleonic domination contributed to the breakdown of the feudal order, but national humiliation and extortion from the population led to an intensification of the liberation struggle. A guerrilla war is unfolding in Spain. Napoleon's campaign in Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600,000-strong "great army". In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and Austria went over to their side. Napoleon was defeated. In 1814, the allies enter the territory of France and occupy Paris.

After Napoleon's exile to the island of Elba and the restoration of royal power in France in the person of Louis XVIII heads of state - allies in the anti-French coalition gathered in Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war world. The meetings of the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by the news of Napoleon's return to power in 1815 (The Hundred Days). June 18, 1815 Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of A. Wellington and G. L Blucher at the battle of Waterloo defeated the troops of the French emperor.

Vienna system.

By decision of the Congress of Vienna, territorial increments were received by Russia (part of Poland), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), Prussia (part of Saxony, the Rhine region). The southern Netherlands went to Holland (until 1830, when Belgium was formed as a result of the revolution). England received the Dutch colonies - Ceylon, South Africa. 39 German states united in the German Confederation, while maintaining their full independence.

Peace and tranquility in Europe was called upon to maintain the union of all states, which was actually headed by the leading powers of the continent - Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and France. This is how the Vienna system came about. Despite the contradictions between the powers and the revolution in a number of countries, the Vienna system as a whole remained stable in Europe until the early 1950s. 19th century

Monarchs of European countries, united in the so-called Holy Union, gathered until 1822 at congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. According to the decisions of these congresses, interventions took place in the countries where revolutions began. The Austrian invasion extinguished the revolution in Naples and Piedmont, France intervened in the revolutionary events in Spain. An invasion of Latin America was also being prepared to suppress the national liberation struggle there. But England did not benefit from the appearance of the French in Latin America, and she turned to the United States for help. In 1823 the President of the United States Monroe defended the entire American continent from Europeans. Simultaneously, it was the first US claim to control all of America.

The 1822 Congress at Verona and the invasion of Spain were the last common actions of the members of the Holy Alliance. The recognition by England in 1824 of the independence of the Latin American countries, the former Spanish colonies, finally undermined the unity of the Holy Alliance. In 1825-1826. Russia changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against Turkey, providing support to the Greeks, while Austria's position on this issue remained sharply negative. The ever expanding liberal movement in the European powers, the development of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in all countries, shook the Holy Alliance to its foundations.

International relations in the second half of the XIX century.

The Vienna system finally collapsed after the revolutions of 1848-1849. The intensified contradictions between Russia, on the one hand, and England and France, on the other, led to the Eastern (Crimean) War of 1853-1856. Russia was defeated by a coalition of England, France, Turkey and the Kingdom of Sardinia, which were openly supported by Austria and secretly by Prussia. As a result of the war, Russia's positions on the Black Sea were shaken.

France became one of the leading European powers. Emperor of France Napoleon III helped Italy in her war against the Austrian Empire. For this, Italy lost Savoy and Nice. Preparations began for the capture of the left bank of the Rhine by France. Prussia began to prepare for wars for the unification of Germany. During the Franco-Prussian (Franco-German) war of 1870-1871. Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat. Alsace and Lorraine went to united Germany.

At the end of the XIX century. contradictions between the powers became even more aggravated. The colonial rivalry of the great powers intensified especially. The most acute were the contradictions between England, France and Germany.

On May 20, 1882, a secret treaty was signed between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary, according to which Germany and Austria-Hungary undertook to support Italy in the event of an attack on the latter France, and Italy undertook the same obligation with regard to Germany. All three powers pledged to go to war with the attacking states. Italy, however, stipulated that in the event of an attack by England on Germany or Austria-Hungary, she would not provide assistance to the allies. With the signing of this agreement, Triple Alliance.

At the beginning of 1887, it seemed that war between France and Germany was inevitable, but the latter had to abandon it, since Russia was ready to help France.

The Franco-German military alarm coincided in time with the aggravation of relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary. As soon as the Austro-German-Russian treaty of neutrality expired, Russia did not want to re-conclude it with the participation of Austria-Hungary. Germany decided to agree to a bilateral agreement with Russia - the so-called "reinsurance agreement". According to the treaty, both parties were obliged to remain neutral in the event of a war of either side with another power. At the same time, Germany pursued a policy of aggravating relations with Russia. But this led to a rapprochement between Russia and France - the main enemy of Germany.

The eyes of France turned to Russia. The volume of foreign trade between the two countries continuously increased. Significant French investments in Russia and large loans provided by French banks contributed to the rapprochement of the two states. Germany's hostility to Russia was also becoming more and more clear. In August 1891, an agreement was concluded between France and Russia, and a year later, a military convention. In 1893, the union was finally formalized.

The sharp struggle of England with France and Russia supported the aspirations of part of her ruling circles to come to an agreement with Germany. The British government twice tried to buy German support for the Axis with the promise of colonial compensation, but the German government demanded such a price that England refused the deal. In 1904-1907. an agreement was drawn up between England and France and Russia, called the "Triple Accord" - Entente (translated from French - "cordial agreement"). Europe was finally divided into hostile military blocs.

Preview:

MBOU "Secondary School No. 49"

a history teacher

Dolzhenkova E.V.

HISTORY LESSON

IN 8 CLASS

ON THIS TOPIC

"INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT THE END OF THE 19TH - BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY"

Goals and objectives of the lesson:

• To reveal the historical significance of international relations, to update knowledge about the development of the history of Western European countries at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.
• To promote in students a sense of rejection of war as a means of resolving international conflicts, the formation of schoolchildren's value orientations for a world without wars and violence, for peaceful ways to resolve international disputes.
• To convey to the minds of students the idea that the accumulation of military potential, the surge of racism and chauvinism pose a great threat to the world, that there are no “small wars”, every war is inhumane and poses a threat to human civilization, to form a sense of protest against unjust aggressive wars, the desire to fight against manifestations of nationalism, chauvinism, racism as one of the most dangerous manifestations of aggression.
• To expand the horizons of schoolchildren due to information that goes beyond the scope of a school textbook.
• Describe the general state of international relations.
• Describe the formation of a block system.
• Show the increase in international tension at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. , manifested in the arms race, the growth of nationalism and chauvinism, the creation of military alliances, regional wars for the division of the world.
• Continue to develop the ability to prepare a message, use previously studied material, evaluate historical phenomena, systematize, establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Basic concepts:

• modernization, imperialism, imperialist wars,
• colonialism, spheres of influence;
• Entente; "Union of the Three Emperors"
• "Triple Alliance", "Franco-Russian Union";

Means of education:textbook by A. Ya. Yudovskoy, P. A. Baranova, L. M. Vanyushkina “New history. 1800-1913. Grade 8”, maps “World by 1870,” and “Territorial and political division of the world 1876-1914. ,”

Advance task:prepare reports on the topic: “The territorial division of the world in the end of the 19th century”, “the history of social movements of the 19th century. Kadetstvo»

Lesson plan:

1. Causes of the aggravation of international relations at the beginning of the 20th century.
2. Foreign policy of leading countries. International alliances, conflicts and wars at the beginning of the 20th century.
3. Steps to war
4. The struggle of the world community against the spread of the military threat.

1. Beginning of the lesson. The commander submits a report. Organizational moment.
2. Teacher:

So, we are finishing the study of the era of development of industrial society in the 19th century within the framework of the New History.

The topic of our today's lesson is "INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE END OF THE 19TH - BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY" Write in your notebook.

- It must be said that the awareness of the essence of a qualitatively new state of European and world history at the turn of the 19th century. 20th century did not come right away. The transitional nature of the era was perceived differently by politicians, economists, philosophers, artists and scientists ...

3. Before you are two paintings depicting face of the era

On the one hand, the young inquisitive era of capitalism, which is the future;

On the other hand, the era of fear, torment associated with an imminent world war.

Which artist is right? whose image is historically correct? I think that each of you will answer these questions yourself at the end of the lesson.

However, numerous books and articles defined the new era with the general concept of "imperialism" (from Latin - power, state, empire). The first thing that was quite obvious and required an explanation: why the whole world, precisely at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. was "seized with an unprecedented fever of imperialism" (in the words of a French historian, a contemporary of the events).

4. - The study of changes in the economy of the leading industrial countries and in the world economy has allowed us to approach the economic explanation of imperialism. Let's take a look at this stuff.

(graphic dictation)

Checking yourself on slide number 2 - yes

No

Is it true that"

1. Imperialism is the stage of monopoly capitalism, the last stage of capitalism;
2. Monopoly is a form of public ownership of the means of production.
3. The most common types of monopolies in the 19th century were concerns, trusts and syndicates.
4. The financial oligarchy is the list of the richest people in the world
5. The metropolis is a country that ranks 1st in the world in terms of the length of railways
6. One of the signs of imperialism is the export of capital in large volumes
7. A colony is a backward country that has become politically and economically dependent on a more developed state.
8. In the era of imperialism, large international corporations are created that divide the world into spheres of influence
9. A sign of monopoly capitalism is the creation of a single world market
10. All European countries developed at the same pace and were at the same stage of capitalism.
11. In the era of imperialism, the exploitation of the working class and the oppression of the peoples of the colonial countries are completely absent.

5. This graph symbolizesthe pulse of the era of "Imperialism",it beats unevenly, and the interruptions are getting sharper. In medicine it is diagnosed as fever.

In our case, this isthe fever of imperialism that gripped the whole world in the late 19th century. 20th century

6. Having analyzed, set the goals of our work today in the lesson:

(the class formulates the objectives of the lesson)

1. Find out the reasons for the aggravation of international relations in the end of the 19th century. 20 centuries
2. Try to develop your own perspective face of the era

7. Analysis of the world map in the late 19th century

(Students answer at the blackboard)

8. As colonial conquests expanded, attempts were made to explain the motives for expansion (conquests).

But let's find out the reasons for this phenomenon ourselves by analyzing a selection of historical documents.

The famous writer and public figure Ramen Rolland spoke

- “Integrity of the mind consists in not retreating before the truth... Having the courage to seek, judge and decide for yourself. Have the courage to think for yourself. Being human." (R. Rollan)

(independent work with documents in groups and their analysis)

1. Economic development of countries
2. Foreign policy of countries
3. Social movements in countries

slides with conclusions

9. Teacher: a story about the pacifist movement + a student's speech about the history of the cadet movement

10. So, the result that we have come to today is “The world at the beginning of the 20th century was on the verge of a world war” and the main reason for it was the monopoly capitalism or imperialism that was developing in the world (the highest and most transferable stage of development at that time).

So which of the faces of the era is more truthful from the point of view of historical analysis?

(students analyze images)

Aristotle said

“War is a denial of truth and humanity. It's not just about killing people, because a person must die one way or another, but about the conscious and persistent spread of hatred and lies, which are gradually instilled in people.There is nothing more terrible than war, for when there is peace on earth: children bury their parents, and when

in the land of war, parents bury their children!”

Reflection:

Our lesson is coming to an end. Let's check again what we learned today

(with the help of emoticons we determine the level of assimilation of knowledge)

On the desk:

1. Imperialism is monopoly capitalism. signs of imperialism.
2. The uneven economic development of countries is one of the reasons for the aggravation of world contradictions
3. Growth of the labor and national liberation movement
4. Social movements k. 19-n. 20th century

(each of these steps gets a emoji)

APPLICATION

1. why the whole world is in the late XIX - early XX century. was "seized with an unprecedented fever of imperialism" (in the words of a French historian, a contemporary of the events).

Indeed, the colonial seizures of territories, the creation of empires, the predatory activity of trading companies were known for many decades and centuries, but it was in the last quarter of the 19th century. a fierce rivalry unfolded among a small group of industrial capitalist states for the seizure of territories in Asia, Africa and the Pacific Ocean. Great Britain, France, united Germany and Italy, as well as Russia, the USA, Japan, smaller states - Belgium, Holland, Portugal, Spain - all took part in the bacchanalia of colonial conquests and the creation of colonial empires.
England has succeeded most of all As recently as 1852, the British finance minister, B. Disraeli, declared that "colonies are millstones around our necks." And for 1884-1900. England acquired 3.7 million square meters. miles with a population of 57 million people. Not far behind France, seized the territory of 3.6 million square meters. miles with a population of over 36 million people. Germany got less - 1 million square meters. miles with 16 million people. Other colonial powers were content with less booty. As a result, by the beginning of the XX century. basically completed the territorial division of the world between a handful of imperialist states.
Africa was the main object of colonial expansion at that time. The largest African countries became British colonies: Nigeria, Kenya, Tanganyika. The colony of Rhodesia was established in South Africa. England occupied Egypt and Sudan. France took possession of Tunisia, Western and part of Central Africa, Madagascar. Germany got the lands of the so-called German East and South-West Africa, Togo, Cameroon. Italy captured Libya and part of Somalia.
In addition to the colonies, many formally independent states in Asia, Africa and Latin America fell into the sphere of capital expansion, political and economic dependence. The colonialists justified their takeovers with a "civilizing mission", claiming that they were carrying the heavy "burden of the white man" in order to educate the "wild natives". The famous English poet Rudyard Kipling, the singer of colonialism, wrote about this:
Carry the burden of the whites -
And the best sons
Send to hard work
Beyond distant seas,
At the service of the conquered
gloomy tribes,
At the service of half-children,
Or maybe hell.

1. HISTORY OF KADETSTSTV

Cadet comes from the French word (CADET - JUNIOR) - these are young people in military service in the ranks of soldiers before they are promoted to officers.

In Russia there were closed secondary military schools for children.

The 1st Cadet Corps opened in 1732 and by the middle of the 19th century, there were 18 cadet corps. From 1863 to 1882, instead of the cadet corps, there were military gymnasiums.

The fundamental difference between the Russian cadet corps and the European ones was that the young men in them were prepared not only for a purely military career, but also for the state service in the civilian field.

Graduates of the cadet corps were the pride not only of Russia, but, one might say, of the entire earthly civilization. The cadets were field marshals Rumyantsev and Kutuzov, naval commanders Bellingshausen and Ushakov, Kruzenshtern, Nakhimov, Lazarev, poet Sumarokov, diplomat and poet Tyutchev, composers Rimsky-Korsakov, Rachmaninov, doctor Sechenev, artist Vereshchagin, writers Radishchev, Dostoevsky, Kuprin, Leskov, Dal, founder of the Russian theater Volkov.

France in the late 19th - early 20th centuries

In the second half of the XIX century. France ended the long struggle between the monarchy and the republic in favor of the republic. France became a developed industrial country, completed the creation of its colonial empire.
Franco-Prussian War and Revolution 4 September 1870Aggravation of Franco-Prussian relations in the late 60s. 19th century led to the war desired by the governments of both countries. July 19, 1870 France declared war on Prussia.
Napoleon III was poorly prepared for hostilities, although his Minister of War assured: "We are ready, everything is in order in our army, right down to the last button on the last soldier's spats." In fact, no one even knew the exact number of soldiers and ammunition, chaos reigned in the troops.
The denouement came quickly: on September 2, 1870, Napoleon III with an 83,000-strong army surrendered near the town of Sedan. The news of the sedan disaster shocked the whole of France. Everyone considered the emperor to be the culprit of the defeat. On September 4, the people of Paris revolted. A bourgeois-democratic revolution took place, which destroyed the Second Empire and established the Third Republic.
The historian and politician Thiers came to the fore in political life. On May 10, 1871, his government signed a peace treaty in Frankfurt am Main, according to which France suffered huge losses. She gave Germany rich areas - Alsace and Lorraine - and pledged to pay 5 billion francs indemnity.
Foreign policy.After the defeat in the war of 1870-1871. the main task of French policy was to find strong allies to counter Germany and return Alsace and Lorraine. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. France overcame differences with Russia and England and signed alliance treaties with them. The allies were preparing hard for the impending war.
With unprecedented energy, the Third Republic expanded its colonial possessions. In Southeast Asia, Tonkin (Northern Vietnam), Annam (Central Vietnam), Cambodia and Laos were enslaved as a result of a ten-year war. In Africa, France established control over Tunisia and Morocco, captured the large island of Madagascar and vast territories in the western and equatorial parts of the continent. France became the second colonial power after Great Britain. Her possessions covered an area of ​​about 10 million square meters. km, over 50 million people lived in them.
Economic development.At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. France remained one of the most developed countries in the world. But in terms of industrial production, it lagged behind the United States, Germany and England and moved from second place in the world to fourth. Its economy was extremely hard hit by the consequences of the lost war with Prussia and the lack of its own industrial raw materials. The enormous numerical predominance of poorly mechanized small enterprises over well-equipped large factories had a negative effect.

On the other hand, at the end of the XIX century. powerful industrial and financial companies are emerging and playing an ever greater role in France. The associations "Comite de forge" and "Schneider-Creusot" dominated the metallurgical industry, "Renault" and "Peugeot" - in the automotive industry. The Saint-Gobain concern occupied a strong position in the chemical industry. The banking system has been greatly developed.
Labor and socialist movement.From 1870 to 1914, wages increased by an average of 30%, but at times they fell, prices rose, and the usual working day was 11-12 hours. The French worker earned less and lived worse than the English and American. Political rights and freedoms were limited. The workers sought to improve their economic situation and expand political rights.
Well-known proletarian leaders were Jules Guesde and Paul La Fargue, supporters, although not consistent, of the Marxist theory of socialism. The interests of the workers were actively defended by the prominent publicist and historian Jean Jaurès, an implacable opponent of capitalism and war. Unlike K. Marx and F. Engels, he saw the way to liberation not in revolution, but in a general strike and peaceful transformations.

At the end of the XIX century. in France, there were several workers' organizations that were looking for ways to get closer. In 1895, it was decided to create a single trade union organization - the General Confederation of Labor, which became the leading force of the strike movement (under this name it also exists in modern France). In 1905, the socialist organizations formed the United Socialist Party, which has been operating in a reorganized form to this day. The French socialists advocated peaceful reforms and devoted a lot of time to parliamentary activity.
Hundreds of strikes were held in France every year.

England in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.

By the beginning of the XX century. England lost its first place in terms of industrial production, but remained the strongest maritime, colonial power and financial center of the world. In political life, the restriction of monarchical power and the strengthening of the role of parliament continued.
Economic development.In the 50-70s. Britain's economic position in the world was stronger than ever. In subsequent decades, the growth of industrial production continued, but much more slowly. In terms of the pace of development, British industry lagged behind American and German. The reason for this lag was that the factory equipment installed in the middle of the 19th century was outdated. Its renewal required large capitals, but it was more profitable for banks to invest in other countries than in the national economy. As a result, England ceased to be the "factory of the world" and at the beginning of the 20th century. in terms of industrial production was in third place - after the United States and Germany.
As in other European countries, by the beginning of the 20th century. a number of large monopolies arose in England: the Vickers and Armstrong trust in military production, tobacco and salt trusts, etc. There were about 60 of them in total.
Despite the loss of industrial superiority and the agricultural crisis, England remained one of the richest countries in the world. It owned enormous capital, had the largest fleet, dominated the sea routes, and remained the largest colonial power.
Domestic policy of liberals and conservatives.The ruling circles felt strong pressure from the working class and the petty bourgeoisie, who sought to improve the economic situation and expand political rights. In order to prevent major upheavals and maintain power, liberals and conservatives were forced to carry out a series of reforms.
But even in bourgeois-democratic England, far from all problems were solved. The national liberation struggle of the Irish did not stop.
foreign and colonial policy.The leaders of both conservatives and liberals sought to expand the British Empire (this is how Great Britain was called together with the colonies since the 70s of the 19th century).
One of the most staunch supporters of the expansion of the empire (they called themselves imperialists) Cecil Rode stated: "What a pity that we can not reach the stars ... I would annex (i.e., capture) the planets if I could."
In North Africa, England occupied Egypt and captured the Sudan. In South Africa, the main goal of the British was to capture the Transvaal and Orange republics, founded by the descendants of Dutch settlers - the Boers. As a result of the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), the 250,000-strong British army won, and the Boer republics became British colonies. In Asia, England occupied Upper Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and strengthened its position in China. The wars of the British were accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the local inhabitants, who offered stubborn resistance to the colonialists.
On the eve of the First World War, the British Empire occupied an area of ​​35 million square meters. km with a population of over 400 million people, which accounted for more than a fifth of the earth's land area and a fourth of the world's population. (Think about these numbers and draw your own conclusions.)
The exploitation of the colonies gave England huge profits, which made it possible to raise the wages of workers and thereby alleviate political tensions. S. Rode said directly: "If you do not want a civil war, you must become imperialists."
Colonial conquests led to a clash between England and other countries, also striving to seize more foreign lands. Germany became the most serious enemy of the British. This forced the British government to conclude allied treaties with France and Russia.
Unions. Poverty has persisted, although on a smaller scale than before, unemployment has not disappeared. Half of the London workers did not even have money for a decent funeral. Hundreds of thousands of Englishmen in search of a better life sailed across the ocean.
All this created the ground for the labor movement, the growth in the number and influence of trade unions. In 1868, the most massive trade union organization was founded - the British Congress of Trade Unions (TUC), which exists to this day. It included highly paid skilled workers. The BKT peacefully sought from entrepreneurs to increase wages and reduce working hours, and from Parliament to pass laws in favor of workers.
In 1900, on the initiative of the BKT, the first (after the Chartist) mass political organization of workers, the Labor (i.e., workers) party, was founded. It included not only workers, but also representatives of the petty bourgeoisie and intelligentsia, who played a leading role in the party. The Labor Party is still an influential political force today. Then she declared herself the defender of the interests of the workers and directed her main efforts to winning seats in parliament and carrying out peaceful reforms. At the beginning of the XX century. its population reached 1 million people.

GERMANY IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

The German Empire included 22 German monarchies and 3 free cities - Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg; Berlin, the capital of Prussia, became the capital of a united Germany. The constitution adopted in April 1871 provided for the federal structure of Germany. The constitution consolidated the hegemony of Prussia.

In 1870 the industrial development of Germanyaccelerated sharply; a number of measures were taken that created favorable conditions for industrial and commercial activities: a single currency and a single postal system were introduced, and an imperial bank was founded. Germany received a huge indemnity from France and acquired East Lorraine, rich in iron ore. By the end of the 19th century, new industries, chemical and electrical engineering, developed on the basis of the latest technology. The creation of industrial and banking monopolies began in Germany earlier than in some European countries and proceeded faster. In banking at the end of the 19th century, the bulk of credit operations were concentrated by 6 giant banks closely associated with the established industrial monopolies. On the basis of the coalescence of banking and industrial capital, especially in the 1990s, the formation of financial capital proceeded. In the process of the formation of monopolies, the largest magnates of capital emerged (Kirdorf, Krupp, and others). The big industrial and banking magnates have concentrated gigantic economic power in their hands.
The political course of the Bismarck government was aimed at strengthening the Junker-bourgeois militaristic state and establishing German hegemony in Europe.

In the 70s the working class of Germanyachieved significant success. In 1875, as a result of the union of parties with the General German Workers' Union, the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany was created. The formation of the party met the urgent needs of the workers' movement. With the help of Marx and Engels and with the support of the advanced workers, the party was directed towards the path of consistent struggle against militarism and exploitation. In 1877, in the elections to the Reichstag, the Social Democratic Party received half a million votes. The answer to this was the Exceptional Law against the Socialists, passed through the Reichstag in 1878, which made the entire activity of the party extremely difficult. However, the party showed its vitality, increased its ties with the masses and succeeded in becoming the true vanguard of the German proletariat. The party's influence grew, and Marxism won a victory in it. Bismarck's attempts to divert the workers from the class struggle with the help of social security laws were not successful.

In the field of foreign policyBismarck, who sought to isolate France, skillfully used the contradictions between European states. In 1873, the "Union of Three Emperors" (Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany) was created; in 1881 it was turned from a consultative pact into a treaty of mutual neutrality. In 1879-1882. The Tripartite Alliance was concluded, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, directed against France and Russia. Twice (in 1874-1875 and 1887) between Germany and France there was a so-called "military alarm" caused by Germany's threats to start a war against France, but the plans of the ruling circles of Germany were prevented by the position of Russia, and partly of Great Britain. Bismarck feared a war with Russia as extremely dangerous for Germany, but the desire of the Junkers and the bourgeoisie to establish Germany's hegemony in Europe, as well as the intensified economic contradictions between Germany and Russia, led to an aggravation of Russian-German relations. The Union of Three Emperors collapsed. The rapprochement between Russia and France, which Bismarck sought to prevent, ended in the conclusion of peace. At the same time, Anglo-German relations also escalated.

Austria-Hungary - "Patchwork Empire"

Unlike most of the states of Western Europe, Austria-Hungary was a multinational state, and it was often called a "patchwork empire." More than a dozen different nationalities lived on the territory of Austria-Hungary, and none of them made up even a quarter of the total population.

The government of Austria-Hungary sought to suppress the desire of the oppressed nationalities for independence. Several times it dissolved the local parliaments and governments, but could not put an end to the national movements. Numerous legal and illegal nationalist organizations continued to operate in the empire.

Socio-economic development.In the field of economy, Austria-Hungary lagged behind the great powers. The most industrially developed were located in the western part of Austria-Hungary, Austria and the Czech lands. There was a large industry and banks. The six largest monopolies controlled the extraction of almost all iron ore and 92% of steel production. Metallurgical concern "Skoda" in the Czech Republic was one of the most significant enterprises in the European military industry. In other parts of Austria-Hungary, small and medium industry predominated. Hungary, Croatia, Galicia, Transylvania were agrarian regions with large landed estates. About a third of all cultivated land there belonged to the largest owners, who each had more than 1,000 hectares. The peasants were dependent on the landlords, often ran their households in outdated traditional ways.

A feature of the economy of Austria-Hungary was the important role of foreign capital in it. The leading branches of the Austro-Hungarian industry: metallurgical, machine-building, oil, electrical engineering - were financed by German firms or were their property. In second place was French capital. He owned the Skoda factories, part of the railways, mines and enterprises of the iron foundry industry.

At the beginning of the XX century. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was going through a deep political crisis caused by the riselabor and national liberation movement.After the publication in Russia of the tsarist manifesto on October 17 (30), 1905, which promised democratic freedoms and the convocation of the State Duma, the leadership of the Austrian Social Democratic Party called on the working people to mass actions in support of universal suffrage. In early November 1905, in Vienna and Prague, workers took to the streets, staged demonstrations, organized strikes, built barricades, clashed with the police. The Austrian government made concessions and on November 4, 1905 announced its consent to the introduction of universal suffrage. In February 1907, a new electoral law was passed which, for the first time in Austrian history, granted the right to vote to all men over the age of 24.

The main place in the political life of Austria-Hungary at that time was occupied by questionsforeign policy. The ruling circles, especially the so-called "military party", headed by the ardent militarist deputy commander-in-chief, heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, sought to expand in the Balkans. In October 1908, the government announced the accession to Austria-Hungary of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former Turkish provinces populated mainly by Serbs and Croats.