What is education? What is education - interpretation and meaning of the word. What is secondary and municipal education

Education- a single, purposeful process of education and training, as well as the totality of acquired knowledge, abilities, skills, values, operational experience and competence

In the broadest sense of the word, education is the process or product of shaping the mind, character and physical abilities of an individual. Since a person’s experience of one individual does not disappear after its death, but accumulates in society thanks to a developed mind and the ability to communicate, such an accumulation of experience allowed the formation of such a phenomenon as culture. Culture is not the experience of one individual, but the experience of society as a whole. Education is the process of transferring this knowledge accumulated in culture to new generations. Education is purposefully carried out by society through educational institutions: kindergartens, schools, colleges, universities and other institutions, which, however, does not exclude the possibility of self-education, especially in connection with the wide availability of the Internet.

In the ordinary understanding, education, among other things, implies and is mainly limited to the teaching and upbringing of students by a teacher. It may consist of teaching reading, writing, mathematics, history and other sciences. Teachers in narrow specialties, such as astrophysics, law, geography or zoology, can only teach these subjects. The specialization of education increases as students grow older. There is also teaching of vocational skills such as driving. In addition to education in special institutions, there is also self-education, for example, through the Internet, reading, visiting museums or personal experience. The level of general and special education is determined by the requirements of production, the state of science, technology and culture, as well as social relations.

Awareness of the possibilities of using compulsory education as a means of depersonalizing a person caused in a democratic society the development of a movement for non-state and even family education, for a larger share of courses on the responsible choice of the student (with the participation of parents and teachers) in the curriculum of secondary schools (that is, after graduation from primary school) , support for self-education, continuous education throughout a person’s active life (as educational needs arise), out-of-school, distance and additional education, etc.

Approaches to education

Russian legislation contains a fairly clear definition explaining what education is. It should be understood as a purposeful process of training and education in human, social and state interests. It is noteworthy that the Law places personal development in the first place.

The concept of the learning process

The Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia also explains what education is. Here the concept is somewhat broader. Education is a process of socialization, pedagogically organized and carried out in personal and public interests.

Types of training

First of all, vocational and general education are distinguished. In the latter case, it is assumed that uniform knowledge will be obtained, regardless of the person’s future specialization. What is vocational education in this case? It is understood as a learning process, oriented in its content to the needs and conditions of a particular specialization. Of course, this process also includes a general educational element. A student in a specialized institution receives basic general education along with vocational education. Even the university curriculum contains some basic, general disciplines. These include, for example, philosophy, psychology, pedagogy, law, economics and others. The Law provides the concept of specialized and general training programs. They, along with educational standards, the system of institutions implementing them, and governing bodies constitute the entire educational network in Russia.

Levels of the learning process

What is education in modern Russia? It should be said that the education system has undergone significant changes throughout its existence. Today in Russia, general education is divided into preschool, primary, general basic, and complete secondary. At the same time, there are also specialized ones. You can understand the difference between levels of training by considering some definitions. For example, what is preschool education? This is an activity that is considered to be the development, training, and education of young children. What is it? This is the process of obtaining general knowledge aimed at the comprehensive development of children. This level is between the initial and advanced levels of knowledge. Those who have completed secondary general or vocational education have access to the next level. After graduating from school, technical school or college, a person enters a university. This may be followed by postgraduate studies (doctoral or postgraduate studies). There are also optional forms of acquiring knowledge. What additional education is is not difficult to understand. Optional forms include various optional subjects, interest groups, and courses for adults that provide advanced training. Returning to the question of what secondary education is, it should be noted that this particular stage is considered by many teachers to be the foundation that allows the student to develop his abilities in accordance with his interests, while gaining basic knowledge.

Types of pedagogical institutions in Russia

Many experts believe that the kind of education that citizens receive in our country contributes to the most comprehensive development of the individual. To ensure the highest quality educational process, there are various institutions. Young children receive primary education at preschool educational institutions. These include nurseries and kindergartens. However, it should be noted that, due to the fact that they are not able to cover all children today, the main responsibility for ensuring the initial education of the child falls on the family. The next stage is school. This institution provides or complete education for children. The name “school” should also include pro-gymnasiums, gymnasiums, lyceums and others. Some institutions practice in-depth study of individual subjects. In Russia, there are also institutions for teaching children whose capabilities are limited.

Specialized, higher educational institutions

In Russia there are vocational and technical institutions and schools. The educational process in institutions is aimed at obtaining basic general knowledge by the student in certain specialties. Citizens receive education in colleges and other similar institutions. Universities offer daytime and evening studies. In these institutions, students receive higher education in accordance with their chosen specialization. There are also educational institutions for additional education for children and adults.

Forms of the pedagogical process

Citizens receive education, both higher and secondary, mainly in daytime classes. At the same time, there is also an evening form of education. External education is considered relatively new. This form of training involves independent study of certain subjects followed by passing exams. Today, unlike in previous years, access to external studies has been significantly expanded. Correspondence courses are very popular. It is noteworthy that every year the number of part-time students increases. This indicates the interest of citizens in obtaining higher education. Not only school graduates, but also some working youth are showing interest. At the same time, many strive to obtain a second higher education. It is also gaining popularity. Computer technologies, satellite television, and the Internet are used to obtain knowledge in this way. The spread of distance learning is mainly due to the computerization of pedagogical institutions.

Mandatory nature and variability of the learning process

The variability of education should be understood as the ability of the learning process to correspond to the capabilities and abilities of different groups of students and the personal characteristics of each. For Russia, this trend is considered one of the main ones. Another direction, being opposite, but at the same time inextricably linked with the first, is the pedagogical process. Within the framework of this topic, the educational process in state and non-state educational institutions is considered. Speaking about this, it is necessary to define what a municipal entity is. This definition should be understood as a free form of education in public educational institutions.

Problems of pedagogy

There is a unified state standard - the level of necessary knowledge that a student should receive in the process. Recently, it has often been said that the Russian education system is experiencing serious problems. This is explained by the influence of demographic reforms carried out in the country. However, these statements have no basis. According to statistics, recently the level of education not only has not decreased, but, on the contrary, has increased. This suggests that the municipal formation that exists in Russia is a clearly organized pedagogical system. Of course, some educational institutions replaced others, and this process continues today. For example, as industry develops, more skilled workers are required. In this regard, secondary and higher specialized education is becoming increasingly popular today.

Education in Russia plays a decisive role in the process of personality formation. Its main goal is the education and training of the younger generation, their acquisition of knowledge, skills, competencies and the necessary experience. Various types of education in Russia are aimed at the professional, moral, intellectual and physical development of children, adolescents, boys and girls. Let's look at this in more detail.

Law "On Education in the Russian Federation"

According to this document, the educational process is a continuous, sequentially connected system. Such content implies the presence of certain levels. In the law they are called “types of education in Russia.”

Each level has specific goals and objectives, content and methods of influence.

Types of education in Russia

According to the law, there are two large levels.

The first is general education. It includes preschool and school sublevels. The latter, in turn, is divided into primary, basic and complete (secondary) education.

The second level is vocational education. It includes secondary, higher (bachelor's, specialist and master's) and training of highly qualified personnel.

Let's look at each of these levels in more detail.

About the preschool education system in Russia

This level is intended for children under seven years of age. The basic goal is the general development, training and education of preschool children. In addition, it implies monitoring and caring for them. In Russia, these functions are performed by specialized preschool education institutions.

These are nurseries, kindergartens, early development centers or homes.

About the secondary education system in the Russian Federation

As noted above, it consists of several sublevels:

• The initial one lasts four years. The main goal is to give the child a system of necessary knowledge in basic subjects.
• Basic education lasts from fifth to ninth grades. It assumes that the development of the child should be carried out in the main scientific directions. As a result, secondary educational institutions must prepare teenagers for the State Examination in certain subjects.

These levels of education at school are mandatory for children in accordance with their age. After the ninth grade, the child has the right to leave school and study further by choosing special secondary educational institutions. In this case, it is the guardians or parents who are legally entrusted with full responsibility for ensuring that the process of acquiring knowledge is continued and not interrupted.

Complete education means that the student spends two years in the tenth and eleventh grades. The main purpose of this stage is to prepare graduates for the Unified State Exam and further study at a university. Reality shows that during this period they often resort to the services of tutors, since school alone is not enough.

More information about secondary vocational and higher education in our country

Secondary vocational educational institutions are divided into colleges and technical schools (state and non-state). They prepare students in their chosen specialties in two to three, and sometimes four years. A teenager can enroll in most colleges after the ninth grade. The exception is medical colleges. They accept students with complete general education.

You can enter any higher educational institution in Russia through a bachelor's program only after the eleventh grade. In the future, if desired, the student will continue his studies in a master's program.

Some universities now offer a specialist's degree rather than a bachelor's degree. However, in accordance with the Bologna system, higher vocational education under this system will soon no longer exist.

The next step is the training of highly qualified personnel. These are postgraduate studies (or postgraduate studies) and residency. In addition, specialists with higher professional education can undergo an assistantship-internship program. We are talking about training highly qualified pedagogical and creative figures.

Distance education

This system is a new, specific form of education, which differs from traditional ones. Distance education is distinguished by other goals, objectives, content, means, methods and forms of interaction. The use of computer technologies, telecommunications, case technologies, etc. is becoming predominant.

In this regard, the most common types of such training are as follows:

• The first one relies on interactive television. When implemented, there is direct visual contact with the audience, which is located at a distance from the teacher. Currently, this type is not well developed and is very expensive. However, it is necessary when unique techniques, laboratory experiments and new knowledge in a particular area are demonstrated.
• The second type of distance learning is based on computer telecommunication networks (regional, global), which have various didactic capabilities (text files, multimedia technologies, video conferencing, e-mail, etc.). This is a common and inexpensive type of distance learning.
• The third combines a CD (a basic electronic textbook) and a global network. Thanks to its great didactic capabilities, this type is optimal both for university and school education, and for advanced training. A CD has a lot of advantages: multimedia, interactivity, availability of a large amount of information with minimal financial losses.

Inclusive education

The Law “On Education in the Russian Federation” highlights the creation of favorable conditions for the education of persons with disabilities as one of its priorities. Moreover, this is reflected not only in form, but also in content.

In the law, this system is called “inclusive education”. Its implementation implies the absence of any discrimination against children with special needs, equal treatment of everyone and accessibility of education.

Inclusive education is implemented in all educational institutions in Russia. The main goal is to create a barrier-free environment in the learning process and provide professional training for people with disabilities. To implement it, it is necessary to perform certain tasks:

• technically equip educational institutions;
• develop special training courses for teachers;
• create methodological developments for other students, aimed at the process of developing relationships with people with disabilities;
• develop programs that are aimed at facilitating the adaptation of persons with disabilities in general educational institutions.

This work has only just begun to develop. Over the next few years, the set goal and identified tasks must be fully implemented.

Conclusion

At the moment, the types of education in Russia are clearly identified, the functions and content of each level are revealed. However, despite this, the reconstruction and reform of the entire education system continues.

one of the basic social institutions in the field of spiritual and material production aimed at summarizing and transferring the existing experience of creative work in the field of spiritual and material production, public self-government, public administration, public safety, public work or public service, the moral command of older generations of adults to younger generations of adults , youth and children.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

EDUCATION

a function of society that ensures the reproduction and development of society itself and systems of activity. This function is realized through the processes of cultural transmission and the implementation of cultural norms in changing historical situations, on new material of social relations, by generations of people continuously replacing each other. As a function, organization is distributed throughout the entire system of human relations, but as an organized process, organization is carried out by special social institutions. For some institutions, education acts as the ultimate and comprehensive framework of their existence, defining the goals, values, subculture, and self-determination of people: schools at all levels, the teaching profession. For other institutions, the meaning of their existence is not exhausted by the implementation of the function of O., but without it they are unthinkable: family, state, church. Localization of the cultural function exclusively in the institutions responsible for its implementation reduces the adaptability and viability of the social system as a whole, limits its development, and can lead to cultural decline, regression, and degradation. In viable and dynamic societies, all structures, institutions and social actors are involved in the implementation of the function of O. in one form or another.

O.'s problems become the defining theme of public communication at turning points in the life of society, in crisis situations, and when the direction of development changes. In the 20th century developed and dynamic societies accept the paradigm of continuous O. (1960-1980s) or O. throughout life (1990s), thereby making almost every person a participant in the implementation of the function of O. O. is implemented as a social human activity. The system of educational activities is presented in different ways in knowledge for different participants in the education process, and is described differently in different approaches.

Within a single process and one generalized function, it is necessary to identify and analyze at least five separate functions and processes: 1) Culture in the narrow sense - the function of laying the foundations and foundations of culture with a focus on the current state of culture and activity; 2) personnel training is a function of integrating and imposing on educational institutions the requirements of developing and reproducing technologies; 3) training is a function of technologization of epistemic activity; 4) education - a function of preserving cultural diversity, regional uniqueness, reproduction and ecology of economic structures, natural landscapes, national traditions, etc.; 5) literacy is a function of ensuring equal initial rights and opportunities for all groups and strata in society, technologization of lifestyle. In education as a sphere of sociocultural practice, basic educational processes are implemented through the cooperative interaction of the functional, methodological, scientific, design, program, research, and managerial positions of its representatives.

The source of the problematic and paradoxical nature of both the practice of education itself and the reflection of educational activity, its theoretical descriptions, interpretations and understanding is the coexistence in a single practice of the activity of two ontologically disproportionate subjects - normative culture and society, personified in the figure of the teacher, on the one hand, and the spontaneous, arbitrary, creative individuality of the student, on the other hand. Phenomenally, this co-existence of two activities appears either as cooperation and cooperation, or as a struggle or a game of confrontation. In the interaction and co-existence of teacher and student (society and individuality), mutual violence and suppression of freedom and will, love and creative upsurges, dogmatic adherence to the canon and destructive heresy are intertwined. The result of education is the personality of the student with its properties, abilities and characteristics, but this result is achieved as a compromise of the interaction of two parties, one of which - culture and society in the person of the teacher - needs, obliges, demands, while the other, in the person of the student, only can , but either he wants it or he doesn’t want it. Thus, the state of culture and society, their development, their future are in the hands of the individual; they are completely dependent on the capricious, willful, creative student.

O.'s history is a story of victories and defeats, agreements and compromises of two participants in the educational process. Reflection and understanding of this interaction accompany the entire history of philosophy. One of the questions that prompted Socrates to philosophize was the question of the transmission of virtue. If virtue is the main attribute of a politician, of whom Pericles was an example, why are the children of Pericles deprived of this attribute? Apparently, virtue is not automatically inherited, neither in the natural sense of inheritance (by blood, by birth, genetically), nor in the social sense (inheritance rights, primogeniture, etc.). Such doubts disqualify traditional social foundations, the hereditary aristocracy is deprived of the basis for its existence, and the ability of a democratic polis to survive is also problematized. The problem does not lend itself to an immediate speculative solution, so at the same time Socrates deals with it practically (his student Alcibiades), but here he does not achieve success, as with his own children. Ancient philosophy is characterized by a narrowing of the understanding of educational issues in theoretical terms due to the model set by Socrates for dividing educational practice into a holistic one - in relation to a specially selected student, and a reduced one - in relation to teaching philosophy. The teaching of philosophy was carried out in a public exoteric form (Socratic conversations on the Agora, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum), and holistic educational practice was a private matter and was clothed in an esoteric form (Socrates - Alcibiades, Plato - Dionysius the Younger, Aristotle - Alexander the Great). Chinese philosophy developed differently, where the attitude was rather the opposite: reflection on educational practice was formalized in exoteric texts for public use, and, conversely, often the philosophical teaching itself was passed on to close students as esoteric knowledge. In ancient China, two opposing versions of educational practice developed within the framework of understanding the problematic nature of education and the dependence of culture and society on the capabilities, arbitrariness, and activity of the student’s individuality. Confucius viewed the child and student as a savage, subject to cultivation by any available means. Ritual is valuable as the quintessence of culture, and it should be broadcast forever; it is better to encourage the student to master the ritual with humanity than with violence. Ritual and humanity become the main principles of Confucian educational practice, which makes it possible to preserve and transmit “Chinese ceremonies” for almost three thousand years, to the present day. Lao Tzu had a different axiological reflection on educational paradoxes. Be yourself, the student is told, culture and society are strong and powerful with their rituals and ceremonies, they seek to suppress you. In order to successfully resist them, the path of Tao (Tao de Ching), the path of self-valuable individuality capable of resisting culture and society, is being developed.

In traditional societies, three main educational paradigms can be distinguished.

Natural pedagogy. Characteristic of societies that have not developed to the stage of statehood. This educational practice is based on a strict separation between the world of adults and the world of children. The former are allowed to participate in rituals, bear all responsibilities and enjoy all the rights available in a given culture, while the latter are deprived of all this. The boundary between the worlds is set by the initiation ritual. During the period of life before initiation, a child naturally masters everything necessary for adult life, having passed the tests, having accomplished all the necessary feats in the initiation rite, he is allowed into the world of adults. The entire content of this educational practice can be expressed by an Eastern proverb, which differs only in variants in many cultures: “up to 7 years old, a child is a king, up to 15 years old - a slave, after 15 years old - a friend.”

Esoteric pedagogy (pedagogy of the ideal). It is widespread in the practice of training neophytes for complex and rare activities (priests, scientists, philosophers, artists, rare and sacred crafts). O. in this practice is based on the hypermotivation of the neophyte student, which arises through the idealization of the teacher, and on imitation of the teacher in everything without exception, without distinguishing between important and unimportant aspects, since neither the teacher nor the student can distinguish what is important and what is not important in complex and sacred activities. Teaching in this paradigm is accompanied by vivid catarctic and ecstatic experiences, which, on the one hand, presupposes and, on the other hand, forms in the student a unique character and a pronounced individuality.

Pedagogy of mass socialization and cultivation. It is represented in any traditional society by a system of norms and rules governing acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Schematically, this educational practice is very simple - some actions and actions are encouraged, others are punished, the teacher points out the correct behavior and actions, or demonstrates them himself, the student imitates. Sometimes permissible and encouraged actions are complex and require special knowledge, skills and abilities, then the desire to master them is specially encouraged. Encouraged and acceptable behavior can vary greatly for different social groups and strata, so education and education become social characteristics, giving rise to qualitative inequality. Individual originality and creative impulses are considered punishable actions in this pedagogy. The ability to “be like everyone else,” typical average behavior, and the fulfillment of ritual, protocol, and decency are encouraged.

In modern Europe, with the destruction of traditional forms of life, the need arises for a new understanding of the activities of society and the entire complex of social relations associated with it. The institution of personality emerges. An autonomous and free person needs education and education to overcome social inequality and for self-realization. Two new educational paradigms are emerging and developing: egalitarian and elitist pedagogies.

Egalitarian pedagogy. It appears during the era of the Reformation in Protestant communities (in Belarus and in fraternal schools of Orthodox communities). Of greatest importance for the development of modern philosophy and egalitarian pedagogy is the theoretical and practical activity of the bishop of the Anabaptist community of the Moravian brothers, J.A. Comenius. Personal self-realization, according to Comenius, is determined by reading the Bible and faith unmediated by the church. Not only initiates, and not even just anyone, but every person should be able to read the Bible. Moreover, it differs - one must be able to read the Bible, and one must read it. “To read or not to read” is determined by the individual himself, but providing him with the ability to read is the responsibility of society. Therefore, Comenius’ pedagogy arises on the basis of the Reformed Christian imperative, but as secular. The requirement for everyone to be able to read the Bible presupposes continued O., since special skills for reading the Bible are taught at universities. Komensky solves all these problems in the holistic organization of the educational process, linking into a single complex the mass provision of literacy for everyone, the possibility of continuing education according to linked programs from primary school to university. Comenius designed the school through the standardization of educational material at all stages of education, creating the first humanitarian technology. The technological effectiveness of education, according to Comenius, presupposes equal opportunities for all students, allows for interchangeability and consistency of the main technological elements of activity: teachers who are trained in the same way, textbooks, programs, educational institutions. The student gets the opportunity to continue O., changing school or city, missing a year or more, from the same place where he left off. The practical implementation of egalitarian pedagogy required the deployment of a large program of work, which lasted for three hundred years, and was completed only in the 20th century, when illiteracy was completely eliminated in all developed countries and education became widespread. A single technologized activity is effective and sustainable, but conservative and non-adaptive. Therefore, the implementation of egalitarian pedagogy is accompanied by regular crises of national educational systems, which are repeated in the 19th and 20th centuries. every 15-20 years, and after the Second World War in developed countries, one can observe a permanent reform of both the O. system and its content.

Elite pedagogy. Technologization and standardization of the sphere of education naturally creates problems for non-standard educational requests and needs, no matter what this non-standard is motivated by: the interests of students, or specific social needs, or philosophical attitudes (J. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau, James Mill). Elite pedagogy arises as compensation for the shortcomings of mass humanitarian technology of education, never becoming a technology itself, striving to solve its specific problems with specific means. The latter, however, are not very diverse; most often these are various options for home education and self-education. A different matter is pedagogical practices that borrow the technological principles of Comenius’ pedagogy, but implement them in local situations: for a special contingent of students (oligophrenopedagogy for people with mental retardations, deaf pedagogy for the deaf-blind, Makarenko’s pedagogy for dilinquent adolescents, etc.), for broadcasting different content (Waldorf pedagogy based on Steiner's anthroposophy, project method based on Dewey's instrumentalism and Peirce's pragmatism). In the 19th-20th centuries. with the growth of scientific knowledge and the diversification of scientific and philosophical approaches, new pedagogical paradigms arise (psychological - Mannheim (from Mannheim) system with an emphasis on testing abilities, cybernetic - programmed training), but do not go beyond the experimental. Periodic crises in the field of healthcare always end in palliative solutions, and permanent reform is extremely inconsistent. This is due to the unresolved nature of many ontological, moral and ethical problems. Ontological: problems of the concept, nature or creatureliness of man, problems of the content of ideas and problems of the method of activity. Moral and ethical: problems of axiology and problems of law.

The idea of ​​a person. The interpretation of the concept of O. depends on the person’s approach to the idea. Although the possibility of O. as a practice itself already dictates a certain approach to the idea of ​​​​a person. In the etymology of the term O. there is an image (Belarusian adukatsyya - Greek eidos, German bildung - bild, English building), subsuming under an image, giving an image. That is, if O. is possible, then it is understood as working with the form, entelechy of a person. But does this affect the content, essence, nature of man? - this is one of the main questions of the philosophy of education. If human nature is not affected in the process of education, then the variety of educational practices is determined only by cultural and historical ideas about the image or model under which the person being educated is placed. In this case, discussions unfold either around the interpretation of concepts such as: harmoniously developed personality, kalokagathia, jun-tzu (Chinese “noble man”), “true Aryan”, etc., or around the understanding of specific models (the image and likeness of God, “do life from Comrade Dzerzhinsky", Che Guevara and beyond ad infinitum). If education is capable of influencing human nature, then educational practice becomes anthropotechnics (Anthropotechnics) and falls within the scope of the moral law and the categorical imperative. The Soviet and Chinese cultural revolutions with the task of educating (creating) a new man, F. Galton's eugenics and its totalitarian variants become possible. Christian theology puts forward two opposing principles: traditionism, a one-time act of creation of man by God, with the subsequent reproduction of what was once created, and creationism, which assumes God’s creation of every human soul anew. Creationism (Augustine the Blessed, Calvin) is accepted in Protestantism and would fundamentally allow for radical intervention in human nature if it were not limited by the dogma of predestination. Comenius’ pedagogical technology is based on Protestant theology and human ontology. This allows radical intervention in the formation of a person, since it does not affect his soul (essence, destiny), the existence of which is predetermined by God. The latter, in turn, continues to create the soul (determine the fate and essence of a person), but this is carried out in the external sphere of religious practice. In particular, for the Anabaptists (re-baptists), the movement in Protestantism to which Comenius belonged, the radical rebirth of a person occurs at the moment of baptism (rebaptism) of adults, and in less radical forms in the rite of confirmation of adolescents, which goes back to the ancient rites of initiation. The secularization of Comenius's pedagogical technology violates its integrity and organicity, therefore, the problematization of the foundations of egalitarian technology with varying severity is periodically repeated over the course of three centuries of the implementation of Comenius' program. The non-theological version, which allows for the creatureliness of man and the incompleteness of his creation, is presented in the activity approach, in particular, in Vygotsky’s cultural-historical concept. The main premise here is the non-identity of a person with himself in natural history (phylogeny), social history (ontogenesis) and in individual history (biography or actual genesis). The non-identity of a person with himself in the processes of his formation denies the predetermined nature of his development, makes it impossible to unambiguously predict the stages of development, and in a certain sense, diagnostics, in the form that it takes on in Vygotsky’s contemporary psychology, pedology and pedagogy. Without forecasting and diagnostics, the technologized activity of mass education is impossible. In the cultural-historical concept, this obstacle is eliminated by introducing the concept of the zone of proximal development (student, child, person), which is projected in the co-existence of interaction between teacher and student through anticipation, formulation of individual development tasks and joint solution of these problems. Thus, the ontological problem of man is translated into a problem of method, and is resolved by methodological means, and not by philosophical speculation about the essence of man.

Contents of O. The most acute problem of the content of O. is manifested in the opposition of activity and naturalistic approaches (Approach). In Comenius' pedagogy, the content of O. was defined sensually. The student was introduced to the world of sensory things. One of the main principles of Comenius’ didactics was the principle of visibility, which is a reinterpretation for educational activities of the thesis “esse est percipi” - “the content mastered in education can be that which is introduced through sensation.” For Comenius himself, as for Berkeley, sensationalism did not pose a problem, since O. was supplemented by the study of the Bible, the content of which is obviously not sensual. But with the complete secularization of the school, transcendental intelligible objects practically disappear from the content of philosophy. Even ideal objects of mathematics are translated as visual images. The content of philosophy is defined fundamentally differently in phenomenology, transcendental idealism, and the activity approach. But until now, even if this content is transferred to education, in rare cases it becomes the property of individual education, then outside school practice, outside educational institutions. In the professional thinking of teachers, the content of O. is understood as knowledge, abilities, and skills (the so-called ZUNs) in their sensualistic interpretation. Intraprofessional criticism does not rise to the fundamental formulation of the problem of the content of O., but is limited to the substitution of other subject or rational categories in place of ZUNs, for example, abilities, an individual way of activity, or personal knowledge. The problem of the content of education is localized in the institutional system of mass education, since education with a different ontological content (religious, activity-based, philosophical, esoteric, etc.) coexists simultaneously with the mass school.

Educational methods. The problems of educational methods are associated with the difficulties of categorizing the activity of different participants in the educational process and the ontological status of their interaction and co-existence. They try to categorize the holistic process of education through the individual activities of the participants (teacher teaches, student learns) in subject-object schemes. Both the student and the teacher act as active subjects, and their activity is aimed at objects external to them: nature, knowledge, texts, etc. In addition, for the teacher, the student himself is the object of his activity. This approach meets resistance from supporters of subject-subject interaction schemes. Here the activity cannot be considered as an individual or labor transformative activity, which can be reduced to a system of individual activities, but only as a collectively distributed one (V.V. Davydov, V.P. Rubtsov). Such educational activity is understood as a game or communication, which fundamentally cannot be individualized. Recategorizing O.'s activities in terms of play and communication creates more problems than it solves. In a game with many participants, or in communication (which is unthinkable with less than two subjects), there is not and cannot be an a priori external result. This means that the result of education and education can no longer be controlled by the teacher and the society that he personifies; the society loses control over the state of culture and the status quo of the society itself. The individuality of the student and society with the entire world culture in the person of the teacher have equal rights in shaping the result of education and education. But this leads to the absurdization of Comenius’ pedagogical technology (and most other pedagogies that claim to be technologically advanced). Egalitarian pedagogy guarantees equal rights to all students, but there can be no question of equal rights between teacher and student. The first knows, the second can only potentially know, or should know. The idea of ​​\u200b\u200bO. as a game or about communication (dialogue, communication) requires a revision of all ideas about society and culture. This means a rejection of the rigoristic rhetorical (S. Averintsev -) version of culture, a rejection of historicism (K. Popper -) in the interpretation of history and social development. Only a fundamentally open society (A. Bergson, Popper, J. Soros -) is capable of assimilating the activity of O. as a game and dialogue, accepting for itself a completely different function of O. in the version of development of oneself, and not reproduction and conservation. Thus the problem of O's methods. rests on the development of philosophy and methodology for the development of society. The actual professional pedagogical formulation of the problem of teaching methods requires systematic and methodological research and development in the field of heterogeneous, heteronomous, heterochronic and heterarched systems of activity, and this is exactly what modern teaching appears to be for pedagogical thinking. However, such developments and research cannot be carried out by means of pedagogy itself.

Axiology of O. The pluralism of modern societies creates in the sphere of O. a multiplicity of proposals for goals and models of human development. Even traditional societies offered various options for education to new generations, although in a limited set of samples and standards. But in education, characteristic of traditional societies, a person, a student, a child were limited in their ability to choose from the options offered. The choice was predetermined, dictated by origin, abilities, and stability of the institutional forms of the traditional school. The modern student is much freer in choosing the type of education that society can offer him. He is less bound by origin, due to the social dynamics and mobility of individuals, he is less bound by the limitations of his own abilities, due to high technology and a variety of teaching methods adapted to a wide range of abilities, he is less dependent on his native language and ethnicity, due to globalization and standardization O. and the internationalization of cultural languages. To the extent possible, a student’s choice of educational options and education are limited only by his orientation in the world of values. Moreover, these restrictions are encountered by a student at a very early age when choosing a school or even a kindergarten. And any choice not only expands the possibilities, but also narrows them. Choosing a bad school can predetermine your entire future biography and career. While egalitarian pedagogy aims to provide equal opportunities and rights to all students, the pedagogy itself and the institutionalized education system are not capable of ensuring its implementation. Orientation in the world of modern values ​​becomes an independent task of educational activity in the modern world, in contrast to past historical situations, when values ​​were broadcast and transmitted in the process of education itself. But ensuring such orientation in the world of values ​​is achieved outside the institutional school: in the family, in the media , in contacts with peers, etc. When one of the most important tasks of education is removed from the sphere of responsibility of educational institutions, the need arises to transform the entire society into an educational society, where everyone - both students and teachers - is for each other, and not bound by professional ethics, parental responsibility and authority, moral and political censorship. Previously, the child and student received dosed, measured information from society, the dosage was carried out by the social circle, the home library, the school curriculum, and the customs of the community. The Internet has removed the last obstacles to the exchange of information by everyone with everyone, freedom of choice has become unlimited. The axiological problem in its modern form consists not in limiting the freedom of choice in the variety of values, but in the ability to use it. Most social institutions and groups, professional, ethnic and religious communities, not to mention individuals, are unprepared for such a situation. For some communities and subcultures, this unpreparedness is fraught with complete loss from world communication. Entire nations, communities and professional societies turn out to be functionally illiterate, because they cannot navigate the value system of the modern world, develop and adopt modern educational policies and doctrines. A group of eternally “developing” countries has emerged on the planet, forced to constantly catch up with “developed” countries, with no chance of ever finishing this modernization race.

Rights of participants in the process O. Legal issues in educational relations between people are extremely diverse. It was acute in ancient times in the context of natural pedagogy (above), which is characterized by the complete lack of rights of children. Parents controlled the entire life of the child. Only in societies that achieved statehood did norms appear prohibiting the killing of children by parents. But the sale of children into slavery, forced marriages, and corporal punishment are still cultivated in many countries and subcultures. The rejection of traditional natural pedagogy in Europe in modern times opened up the world of childhood. In the 18th century children's clothing itself appeared (even paintings from the Renaissance and Baroque eras depict children either naked or in adult clothes, adjusted to fit only in the wealthy strata of society). In the 19th century Children's literature appeared in the 20th century. - children's folklore was discovered. Until the 20th century Children's rights were regulated exclusively by family law. At the end of the 20th century. When the Declaration of the Rights of the Child appeared, the adult community committed itself to guaranteeing the rights of children as such, and not just the rights of children as potential adults. There is a different formulation of legal problems in egalitarian pedagogy, where we are talking about equal rights (opportunities) for public education for everyone. In the process of unfolding Comenius’ program in egalitarian pedagogy, the question of equal rights arises each time at a new level. Initially, equal rights are spoken of only in relation to those who attend school. After adoption at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. In most countries where primary education is mandatory, the problem is aggravated by the financial status of the parents, the abilities of the children themselves, and their level of development. The methodological progress of pedagogy eliminated this problem in developed countries, but it reappeared during the transition to universal secondary and then higher education. In the USA, specific problems arise with the education of disabled people and children with mental retardation, who are legally guaranteed the right to study in regular schools, Moreover, both ordinary students and the school, which may be sued for poor quality of education, may become the disadvantaged party in the exercise of this right. In professional education, the problem of students' rights receives a specific interpretation. If preparation for a profession begins early, at low levels of education, then this limits the possibilities of continuing education to a greater extent than expands them. This problem is more acute in countries with a multi-option training system. In Belarus, with its secondary vocational schools, inherited from the USSR, there are no problems with the right to continue education at higher levels, but there are problems with the quality of both professional training and general education, which leads to the problem of functional illiteracy (Functional literacy).

Globalization of O. presupposes the possibility and right to receive and continue O. in any country in the world, and this cannot be ensured without coordinated standardization of national O. systems and international agreements on the conversion and recognition of O. certificates and diplomas (Lisbon Convention). Standardization of clothing raises legitimate concerns in some countries regarding the loss of cultural identity and national specificity. Another strictly ethical aspect of the legal problem in education concerns the right of the teacher and the entire education system to impose on students a picture of the world, a worldview, and a model of a person, which constitute the content of education in each particular school. While the freedom to choose educational options and education is declared, this freedom cannot be ensured by each specific school. School activities are organized and technologized for a very specific content of education; in a certain sense, the school zombifies, bewitches the student, imposing on him a picture of the world. Therefore, studying in a specific school (school of a certain type) closes the possibility of mastering other content and following other models. Most of the teaching community is forced to put up with this ethical problem as a necessary evil, but options for its solution are also proposed. The solution to this problem lies in the way of formalizing education, teaching not knowledge about the world, but teaching to learn, to master any knowledge. Although such a solution simply transfers the problem from the ethical plane to the methodological sphere (the methodological opposition of formal and real or material philosophy), unlike ethical problems, methodological problems are fundamentally solvable. And, finally, the last aspect of the legal issues in O. is the preservation of the sovereignty of national states regarding the O. systems of each specific country in the conditions of O. globalization and the widespread spread of the Internet. Historically, the problem is not new. The globalization of religion began with the advent of world religions and has always met resistance from traditional societies in various historical forms of fundamentalism. For the modern era, Islamic and Orthodox fundamentalism is becoming problematic. The problem can only be resolved through national self-determination. This can be seen in the sequence of successive historical programs for O. renovation in Belarus.

Apostolic program of Christianization (10th-14th centuries). The adoption of Christianity introduces peoples into the ecumenical community, which, in addition to Christianity itself, inherits the entire ancient tradition. Culture is complemented by writing, literature, and its own history. The Apostolic educational program opens the history of O. in Belarus. The peculiarity of the Christianization of Belarus is in the co-presence of two options: the Cyril and Methodius program, which made the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities the periphery of the Byzantine civilization, the Catholic missionary program in the lands of ancient Lithuania. The competition of the two programs formed a complex linguistic, confessional, political and anthropological context for the self-determination of the Litvins (Mindovg, Skirgaila and Vytautas were baptized according to both Byzantine and Roman rites, while putting up with, or even patronizing, paganism throughout the territory west of Pinsk - Minsk - Vitebsk) . The consequences of this competition are still evident today, sometimes taking the form of cultural catastrophes, with the separate existence of people and languages, sometimes rising to a dialogue of cultures.

Program of the Reformation (16th-18th centuries). It arose in autochthonous forms in the “fraternal schools” (secular schools of Orthodox communities - brotherhoods) of the modernizing Lithuanian Orthodoxy. The practice of “fraternal schools” was supplemented and enriched by the intensive spread of Calvinism, Anabaptism, and anti-Trinitarianism, in which O. was one of the main components of missionary activity. An egalitarian pedagogy was taking shape, which in many ways anticipated Comenius’ program. The cultural consequences of the implementation of this program were: widespread literacy and printing, urbanization and autonomy of urban and small-town communities, the Bible in vernacular languages, the phenomenon of polemical literature, a unique legal system, fiction and poetry, integration into European culture and cultural expansion to the East, stopped destructive wars with Russia, which lasted intermittently throughout the 17th century.

Program of the Counter-Reformation (16th-19th centuries). The extensive spread of O. was one of Catholicism’s responses to the challenge of the Reformation. The most active in this were the Jesuit and Basilian orders (a Uniate order created under the influence and control of the Jesuits). Lagging behind Protestants in the mass spread of education and literacy, the Jesuits contrasted this with the quality of education, the status and prestige of education. In a short period, more than 80 colleges and gymnasiums and two universities (Vilna and Polotsk academies) were organized. Optional results of this program can be considered the emergence of philosophy and science in Belarus (albeit in archaic neo-scholastic forms), the spread of libraries, museums, pharmacies, hospitals, school theaters, etc. Apostolic Christianization, Reformation and Counter-Reformation were accompanied by educational programs of a globalization and integration nature. But large historical educational programs can also have a different focus.

Liquidation of O. in the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (19th century). The liquidation of all educational institutions was an integral part of the Russification of the population of the Lithuanian provinces. The deportation of the Jesuits and the liquidation of the Basilian order led to the massive closure of colleges and the weakening of universities. Modernized Lithuanian Orthodoxy and the Union were destroyed, and the clergy and believers were subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, together with the elimination of city self-government (Magdeburg Law) this undermined the basis of egalitarian pedagogy (community and city schools). Both universities were closed, laboratories, libraries, archives were taken to Moscow and St. Petersburg, professors and students either emigrated or were sent deep into Russia. Of the entire system of higher and secondary education, only a few educational institutions have survived (for example, the Slutsk Protestant Gymnasium, the Gory-Gorytsk Agricultural School). Higher education was resumed in Lithuania and Belarus only after the First World War.

Soviet educational program (20th century). Education was built on the basis of the technology of egalitarian pedagogy, which was implemented in the USSR most consistently and effectively. But any technology is meaningless. And Soviet pedagogy approached the content of education through the pragmatics of industrialization and the cultural revolution. Technology and content of clothing are synergistically related. In order to increase the efficiency and productivity of Comenius' humanitarian technology, the properties of a mega-machine organization were given. The nationalization of the entire school was accompanied by statism in the content of education. The mechanization of activity led to the dehumanization of the content of the activity itself and the content of education, although the inverse dependence of the organization of activity on the non-humanitarian, quasi-scientific theory and philosophy of Marxism is no less significant. From the system of education, which functioned as a whole, formal, classical, and humanitarian education were removed or replaced by ersatz. In Belarus, deprived of education in the 19th century. cultural layer (both in the sense of people and in the sense of cultural things: archives, museums, monuments, libraries), which found itself without a historical capital, machine-like Soviet technology was implemented in the purest and most perfect forms. As a result, by the time of gaining independence in Belarus there was practically no humanitarian knowledge about their country, an understanding of their country. The implementation of educational programs over two centuries, the first of which consisted of the full-scale elimination of the national educational system, and the second consisted of the accelerated creation of an effective, high-tech, but reduced and one-sided educational system, led to the loss of the nation’s ability to self-survival, reproduction and development.

Incomplete definition ↓

• Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, training, enlightenment (Ushakov’s dictionary).

  In the broadest sense of the word, education is the process or product of “forming the mind, character and physical abilities of the individual... In the technical sense, education is the process by which society, through schools, colleges, universities and other institutions, purposefully transmits its cultural heritage - accumulated knowledge, values and skills - from one generation to another [between generations].” In the context of social progress, education, in addition to the format of transmitting social cultural heritage, allowed a person to break the connection with Nature, in which the volume of knowledge and life expectancy are interconnected.

  In the ordinary understanding, education, among other things, implies and is mainly limited to the teaching of students by a teacher. It may consist of teaching reading, writing, mathematics, history and other sciences. Teachers in narrow specialties, such as astrophysics, law, geography or zoology, can teach only this subject, usually at universities and other universities, colleges and other secondary educational institutions. There is also teaching of vocational skills such as driving. In addition to education in special institutions, there is also self-education, for example, through the Internet, reading, visiting museums or personal experience. The level of general and special education is determined by the requirements of production, the state of science, technology and culture, as well as social relations.

  Pythagoras also noted that “you can share education with another person and, having given it to another, not lose it yourself.” “In general, it is education that distinguishes people from animals, Hellenes from barbarians, freeborn from slaves, philosophers from ordinary people,” he believed. The Russian word “education” contains a reminder of the “image” - Greek. μόρφωσις (or paideia), which means bringing something to a certain form, μορφή (Latin analogue - forma).

  The right to education is currently confirmed by national and international legal instruments, for example, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted by the UN in 1966.

  Awareness of the possibilities of using compulsory education as a means of depersonalizing a person caused in a democratic society the development of a movement for non-state and even family education, for a larger share of courses on the responsible choice of the student (with the participation of parents and teachers) in the curriculum of secondary schools (that is, after graduation from primary school) , support for self-education, continuous education throughout a person’s active life (as educational needs arise), out-of-school, distance and additional education, etc.