17.10.2019

Where on the map was Mesopotamia - an ancient civilization. History of ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia is the territory between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (other names: Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia - this is literally “the area located between two rivers”). On it in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Lagash, Uruk, Ur and other city-states were formed, whose inhabitants lived in clay houses. Only clay was the available material in Mesopotamia, since forests and mountains were absent.

In contact with

To build it, clay bricks were dried in the sun. The walls were built thick because this prevented the destruction of buildings. So, a cart could drive along the city wall- such was its width. The ancient burials found confirm that the craft in these cities was at a high level.

Mesopotamia is an ancient civilization, and the population of its cities numbered up to 40 thousand people. The Tigris and Euphrates contributed to the emergence and formation of agricultural civilization in these territories: after river floods, fertile silt remained along the coastlines - the main wealth of Mesopotamia.

Attention! The floods were so violent that people had to build special embankments along the banks, otherwise the waters would demolish animal shelters, wash away numerous crops in the fields, and flood not only pastures, but also residential villages. Canals were dug to irrigate the land.

Culture of Mesopotamia

In the 3rd millennium BC. e. Cuneiform writing arose in cities. This writing involved drawing lines in the form of wedges onto a stone or clay surface using a pointed stick. At first, cuneiform writing appeared in cities as rebus ideographic letter, and after a while - as a verbal-syllabic one.

The state of Assyria is especially famous for its writing during its cultural heyday. Its ruler created the city of Nineveh (preserved to this day in a destroyed state), on the territory of which scientists discovered the king’s archive, consisting of 30 thousand clay tablets of that period. They contained various texts related to ancient areas of knowledge that were relevant at that time.

At the same time, learning to write and read was available only to children from wealthy families. Schools first appeared on the territory of ancient cities in the 3rd millennium BC. e., and you had to pay for training there. In order to learn the complex writing system, it was necessary to study at the school of scribes for many years.

The mythology of the inhabitants was dominated by such gods as:

Shamash (sun god);
Sin (Moon God);
Ea (god of Water);
Ishtar (goddess of fertility and love).

Among the myths, two stand out: about Utnapishtim and Gilgamesh. The legend of Utnapishtim tells how the gods gathered and planned to destroy people, but one of them saved his favorite, Utnapishtim, and ordered him to build a ship. He obeyed and loaded him with his property, as well as his family, relatives, craftsmen, animals and birds.

The next day, storms arose, and a terrible flood frightened even the gods, who repented of their decision. On the seventh day the flood stopped, and Utnapishtim and his wife, having received immortality from the gods, were settled at the source of the Euphrates and Tigris.

The tales of Gilgamesh are one of the most ancient literary works that have survived to this day. The tales are among the greatest works of ancient Eastern literature; they reflect philosophical views on life and the world around us, the fate of people and their place. They tell about the conflicts of the protagonist with the king, about his campaigns, the fight with the angry goddess, about the Underworld, the death of Gilgamesh, and the flood.

In the central part of the cities there was a ziggurat. This high stepped tower, and on its top a temple was built for the deity who is the patron saint of the city. Today, ziggurats are archaeological sites that the territory of Mesopotamia can boast of. The attractions also contain necropolises, the remains of a palace ensemble.

Only priests could climb to the very top of the tower - in this sanctuary they watched the Moon and two heavenly deities move. The priests compiled calendars and predicted the future according to. There were also scientists, also priests - they studied mathematics. For them, the number 60 was considered sacred, which is why in the modern world every hour consists of 60 minutes, and a circle is 360 degrees. So the culture of Mesopotamia had a significant impact on the whole world.

Ancient cities of Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia on the map proves that its territory was rich in states. The Sumerian cities were replaced by kingdoms:

Akkadian;
Sumero-Akkadian;
Old Babylonian.

In the 16th century BC. e. and later in Ancient Mesopotamia, statehood was absent for quite a long time. There were only a few fairly large cities that for a long time preserved and increased cultural unity - Assyria, the ancient Neo-Babylonian kingdom. In the 4th century BC. e. the Persians conquered Babylon.

Sumerian city-states

According to scientists, the cities of Mesopotamia began to appear in the period 4–5 millennium BC. e. in the southern region of Mesopotamia. They were small and few in number, and their inhabitants were called Sumerians. Ur, Uruk, Lagash and other cities in this territory are currently well studied. The Sumerians built ziggurats and other archaeological sites.

Akkadian kingdom

Sumerian territory at the end of the 24th century BC. e. conquered by the Akkadian king Sargon. The Sumerian city-states came under his rule and became part of the empire. In order to reconcile the significantly different customs and norms of the Akkadians and Sumerians, it was compiled Akkadian legislation, which is one of the most ancient.

Soon the state founded by Sargon fell into several parts. They were joined by the city of Akkad and a number of similar settlements. The rulers of the region, independent of each other's decisions, exercised their power.

During this period, the laws of Uruinimgina were drawn up. They have survived to this day in the form of fragments and are the first monument of legislative significance.

Old Babylonian kingdom

In the 20th century BC. e. the rise of Babylon (translated as “gate of God”) began. This city was located in the center of Mesopotamia, and many canals converged on its territory, vital for every inhabitant of the region, be it Akkadians, Sumerians or other peoples.

In the process of development and gaining power of Babylon, it played an important role conquest policy. During the reign of King Hammurabi, a significant territory of Ancient Mesopotamia was united under the leadership of this city. And Hammurabi himself developed eastern laws, which became world famous and have survived to this day.

Along with the capture of Babylon by the Hittite tribes, the fall of Ancient Mesopotamia began, and the civilization of Mesopotamia was under threat. This period was difficult and long, information about it is scarce and was found due to correspondence with the pharaohs that has survived to this day and the discovery of archaeological artifacts.

Assyria

Assyria played a significant role in the unification of Mesopotamia. In the 8th century BC. e. the inhabitants of Assyria first created on their territory imperial centralized state. Thus began the gradual change from early antiquity to late antiquity. There was technical development, and discoveries in technology helped feed not only officials, but also a large army. The opportunity arose for large-scale conquests and the production of goods for exchange.

Comparison of early and late antiquity

	Early antiquity of Mesopotamia	Late antiquity of Mesopotamia
Economy	Collective use of land and community played a fundamental role	With the permission of the state, private property spread to land territories, individualism appeared, the importance of the community began to decline, communal ownership of the land began to gradually disintegrate
Forms of government	Territorial kingship, a new state, which included communities	An empire is a large, centralized state characterized by an intensive foreign policy.
Religious features	Tribal religions were decentralized, polytheism, or polytheism, was observed	World religions arose, the religious worldview was of an ethical nature, monotheism, or monotheism, was observed
Slavery	Slaves were treated like people, their work was temporary	Slaves were treated like objects

During the existence of Assyria, the rise of this state in the territory of Mesopotamia was observed. Was formed large and powerful army, which had all the necessary military equipment. The Assyrians went on campaign against Egypt twice. The state was allocated a significant territory of the modern Middle East.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

" BasicfeaturesAndpeculiaritiesMesopotamia"

Introduction

The study of the culture of ancient peoples is an integral part of culture in our times. The cultural experience accumulated over thousands of years by many peoples is of great importance. The culture of Mesopotamia was distinguished by a rich cultural life: writing, scientific research, art, literature, architecture - all this left us with many monuments of its genius and distinctive originality. Many ideas, discoveries, and records made by the peoples of Mesopotamia are used today and they are undoubtedly of great importance to scientists in many fields.

“Mesopotamia” means “Land between the rivers” (between the Euphrates and the Tigris). Now Mesopotamia is understood mainly as the valley in the lower reaches of these rivers, and the lands east of the Tigris and west of the Euphrates are added to it. In general, this region coincides with the territory of modern Iraq, with the exception of mountainous areas along the country's borders with Iran and Turkey.

1. PeculiaritiescultureMesopotamia

Mesopotamian civilization is one of the oldest in the world. It was in Sumer at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. humanity leaves the stage of primitiveness and enters the era of antiquity, i.e. from “barbarism” to civilization, creating its own type of culture. The historical conditions for the development of this region determined a number of characteristic features. The culture of Mesopotamia is not homogeneous in its composition. The Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Hurrians, Hittites, Elamites and other tribes took part in its creation and formation.

The main inhabitants of Mesopotamia were the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians and Chaldeans in the south: Assyrians, Hurrians and Arameans in the north. The cultures of Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria reached their greatest development and importance.

Urbanization occupies a significant place in Mesopotamian civilization. At the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. in the area of Sumerian Uruk alone there were 112 small settlements and more than 10 large urban centers. In the 3rd millennium BC. e. all of Mesopotamia was covered with a dense network of cities. This leads to the formation and development of the administrative apparatus, the priesthood, the creation of a permanent market, and the emergence of a wide specialization of artisans in the cities. Cities in Mesopotamia appear as trade and craft centers. Throughout the entire period of antiquity, the coexistence of primitive and ancient culture occurs. Some tribes and villages turned out to be culturally standing at the stage of primitiveness at the end of the ancient period. Writing played a special place in Mesopotamia. The cuneiform script invented by the Sumerians is the most significant achievement of Mesopotamian culture in the modern understanding, since it is from written monuments that it is possible to restore the historical past of Ancient Mesopotamia. The existence of unclear ideas in religious views about the afterlife and the transmigration of souls contributed to the fact that the development of portrait art was not typical for Mesopotamia. All images are of a conditional nature. Due to the special geographical location, material culture occupies a special place, this was manifested in the formation of the irrigation system.

2. CultureSumera

The basis of Sumer's economy was agriculture with a developed irrigation system. Hence it is clear why one of the main monuments of Sumerian literature was the “Agricultural Almanac”, containing instructions on farming - how to maintain soil fertility and avoid salinization. Cattle breeding was also important. Sumerian metallurgy reached a high level. Already at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The Sumerians began making bronze tools, and at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. entered the Iron Age. From the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. A potter's wheel is used in the production of tableware. Other crafts are successfully developing - weaving, stone-cutting, and blacksmithing. Widespread trade and exchange took place both between the Sumerian cities and with other countries - Egypt, Iran. India, states of Asia Minor.

The importance of Sumerian writing should be especially emphasized. The cuneiform script invented by the Sumerians turned out to be the most successful and effective. Improved in the 2nd millennium BC. by the Phoenicians, it formed the basis of almost all modern alphabets.

The system of religious and mythological ideas and cults of Sumer partly overlaps with the Egyptian one. In particular, it also contains the myth of a dying and resurrecting god, which is the god Dumuzi. As in Egypt, the ruler of the city-state was declared a descendant of a god and perceived as an earthly god. At the same time, there were noticeable differences between the Sumerian and Egyptian systems. Thus, among the Sumerians, the funeral cult and belief in the afterlife did not acquire much importance. Equally, the Sumerian priests did not become a special stratum that played a huge role in public life. In general, the Sumerian system of religious beliefs seems less complex.

As a rule, each city-state had its own patron god. At the same time, there were gods who were revered throughout Mesopotamia. Behind them stood those forces of nature, the importance of which for agriculture was especially great - sky, earth and water. These were the sky god An, the earth god Enlil and the water god Enki. Some gods were associated with individual stars or constellations. It is noteworthy that in Sumerian writing the star pictogram meant the concept of “god”. The mother goddess, the patroness of agriculture, fertility and childbirth, was of great importance in the Sumerian religion. There were several such goddesses, one of them was the goddess Inanna. patroness of the city of Uruk. Some Sumerian myths - about the creation of the world, the global flood - had a strong influence on the mythology of other peoples, including Christians.

In the artistic culture of Sumer, architecture was the leading art. Unlike the Egyptians, the Sumerians did not know stone construction and all structures were created from raw brick. Due to the swampy terrain, buildings were erected on artificial platforms - embankments. From the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. The Sumerians were the first to widely use arches and vaults in construction.

The first architectural monuments were two temples, White and Red, discovered in Uruk (late 4th millennium BC) and dedicated to the main deities of the city - the god Anu and the goddess Inanna. Both temples are rectangular in plan, with projections and niches, and decorated with relief images in the “Egyptian style.” Another significant monument is the small temple of the fertility goddess Ninhursag in Ur (XXVI century BC). It was built using the same architectural forms, but decorated not only with relief, but also with circular sculpture. In the niches of the walls there were copper figurines of walking bulls, and on the friezes there were high reliefs of lying bulls. At the entrance to the temple there are two wooden lion statues. All this made the temple festive and elegant.

In Sumer, a unique type of religious building developed - the ziggurag, which was a stepped tower, rectangular in plan. On the upper platform of the ziggurat there was usually a small temple - “the dwelling of God.” For thousands of years, the ziggurat played approximately the same role as the Egyptian pyramid, but unlike the latter it was not an afterlife temple. The most famous was the ziggurat (“temple-mountain”) in Ur (XXII-XXI centuries BC), which was part of a complex of two large temples and a palace and had three platforms: black, red and white. Only the lower, black platform has survived, but even in this form the ziggurat makes a grandiose impression.

Sculpture in Sumer was less developed than architecture. As a rule, it had a cult, “dedicatory” character: the believer placed a figurine made to his order, usually small in size, in the temple, which seemed to pray for his fate. The person was depicted conventionally, schematically and abstractly, without observing proportions and without a portrait resemblance to the model, often in a praying pose. An example is a female figurine (26 cm) from Lagash, which has mainly common ethnic features.

During the Akkadian period, sculpture changed significantly: it became more realistic and acquired individual features. The most famous masterpiece of this period is the copper portrait head of Sargon the Ancient (XXIII century BC), which perfectly conveys the unique character traits of the king: courage, will, severity. This work, rare in its expressiveness, is almost no different from modern ones.

Sumerian literature reached a high level. Besides the Agricultural Almanac mentioned above, the most significant literary monument was the Epic of Gilgamesh. This epic poem tells the story of a man who has seen everything, experienced everything, known everything, and who was close to unraveling the secret of immortality.

By the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Sumer gradually declines and is eventually conquered by Babylonia.

3.Babylonia

geographicalmesopotamian civilization

Its history falls into two periods: the Ancient, covering the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, and the New, falling in the middle of the 1st millennium BC.

Ancient Babylonia reached its highest rise under King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). Two significant monuments remain from his time. The first of them - the Laws of Hammurabi - became the most outstanding monument of ancient Eastern legal thought. The 282 articles of the code of law cover almost all aspects of the life of Babylonian society and constitute civil, criminal and administrative law. The second monument is a basalt pillar (2 m), which depicts King Hammurabi himself, sitting in front of the god of the sun and justice Shamash, and also depicts part of the text of the famous codex.

New Babylonia reached its peak under King Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 BC). During his reign, the famous “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” were built, which became one of the seven wonders of the world. They can be called a grandiose monument of love, since they were presented by the king to his beloved wife to ease her longing for the mountains and gardens of her homeland.

An equally famous monument is the Tower of Babel. It was the highest ziggurat in Mesopotamia (90 m), consisting of several towers stacked on top of each other, on the top of which was the sanctuary of Marduk, the main god of the Babylonians. Herodotus, who saw the tower, was shocked by its grandeur. She is mentioned in the Bible.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder in 1563, inspired by the image of the Colosseum, painted the Tower of Babel. When the Persians conquered Babylonia (VI century BC), they destroyed Babylon and all the monuments located in it.

Babylonia's achievements in astronomy and mathematics deserve special mention. Babylonian astrologers calculated with amazing accuracy the time of the Moon's revolution around the Earth, compiled a solar calendar and a map of the starry sky. The names of the five planets and twelve constellations of the solar system are of Babylonian origin. Astrologers gave people astrology and horoscopes. Even more impressive were the successes of mathematicians. They laid the foundations of arithmetic and geometry, developed a “positional system”, where the numerical value of a sign depends on its “position”, knew how to square and extract square roots, and created geometric formulas for measuring land plots.

4. Assyria

The third powerful power of Mesopotamia - Assyria - arose in the 3rd millennium BC, but reached its peak in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. Assyria was poor in resources but rose to prominence due to its geographic location. She found herself at the crossroads of caravan routes, and trade made her rich and great. The capitals of Assyria were successively Ashur, Kalah and Nineveh. By the 13th century. BC. it became the most powerful empire in the entire Middle East.

In the artistic culture of Assyria - as in the entire Mesopotamia - the leading art was architecture. The most significant architectural monuments were the palace complex of King Sargon II in Dur-Sharrukin and the palace of Ashur-banapal in Nineveh.

Assyrian reliefs also became widely known, decorating the palace premises, the subjects of which were scenes from royal life: religious ceremonies, hunting, military events.

One of the best examples of Assyrian reliefs is considered to be the “Great Lion Hunt” from the palace of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, where the scene depicting wounded, dying and killed lions is filled with deep drama, sharp dynamics and vivid expression.

In the 7th century BC. The last ruler of Assyria, Ashur-banapap, created a magnificent library in Nineveh containing more than 25 thousand clay cuneiform tablets. The library became the largest in the entire Middle East. It contained documents that, to one degree or another, related to the entire Mesopotamia. Among them was the above-mentioned Epic of Gilgamesh.

Mesopotamia, like Egypt, became a real cradle of human culture and civilization. Sumerian cuneiform and Babylonian astronomy and mathematics - this is already enough to talk about the exceptional significance of the culture of Mesopotamia.

5.Scientificknowledge

Medicine. In terms of its content, medicine in Mesopotamia was folk. They mainly used various local herbs and animal products (fat, blood, bones, milk). The texts do not mention any rare or expensive substances. Only the simplest medical instruments were used: spatulas, metal tubes, lancets. Almost no surgical operations were performed (except for caesarean section). The Mesopotamians believed in the effectiveness of both methods, combining the use of medicines and the use of magic. There was no clear division between these two methods: when using medical treatment, magical procedures were also used, and when using magical measures, pharmacopoeia was also used. The magical elements used by the practitioner consisted of short spells using number magic (7 drops of medicine). Herodotus left his testimony about the level of Mesopotamian medicine: “The Babylonians took their sick to the market in order to find out from passers-by what means they would offer for treatment.”

Mathematics. There were 2 types of mathematical texts: mathematical tables and so-called “problem texts”. They became widespread in the Old Babylonian and Seleucid periods (IV-I centuries BC). Math tables were for multiplication and division. They also list squares and cubes, roots, used in calculating compound interest. “Problem texts” contain solutions to specific problems, or a large number of problems are listed (the number could reach 200), listed from simple to extremely complex.

Astronomy. As for astronomy, the Mesopotamians achieved such successes as in mathematics later. The impetus for the development of astronomy was the introduction of mathematical methods into it. Even in Sumerian texts, the names of stars and constellations appear: Moon, Sun, Sirius, Venus, Ursa Major, Pleiades (star cluster in the constellation Taurus). In the 2nd millennium BC. e. Astronomical observations were made of the disappearance and appearance of Venus from behind the Sun, but this was mainly associated with the preparation of astrological forecasts. Later, specific observations began to be made: the positions of the planets, the Moon, and eclipses were calculated; full moon and new moon were indicated; the zodiac was compiled and rules were developed for the accurate calculation of the lunisolar calendar; The planets were studied - Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Saturn. Astrology. The main source of astrological texts is the library of Ashurbanipal. The texts are divided into 2 types: astrological reports, horoscopes. The predictions covered various areas. However, it cannot be asserted that the actions of a particular person are carried out in exact order with prediction. To prevent predictions, complex purification rituals appeared to ward off evil. Sometimes skepticism towards the predictions was noted, but only the king could afford this. As an example, “The Tale of Naram-Suen”: “Like a robber, I will act according to my own will.” In general, for the development of science in Ancient Mesopotamia, it is necessary to note: its practical orientation; use of magical rituals and actions

Conclusion

geographicalmesopotamian civilization

In conclusion, it should be said that the culture of Mesopotamia, one of the oldest centers of human civilization, which can with full confidence be called a highly cultural civilization worthy of the attention of contemporaries.

From the life and activities of the peoples of Mesopotamia, many conclusions and discoveries can be drawn that will help in the search for one’s ideals and life goals. The contribution they made to world culture will never be forgotten and will contribute to the development of human culture for many years to come.

WITHsqueakusedliterature

1. Samuel Hook. Mythology of the Middle East. - M.: ZAO Tsentrpoligraf, 2005.

2. Cultural studies. Tutorial. - M.: Unity, 2005.

3. Civilization of the Renaissance. Jean Delumeau 2006

4. Travel to Ancient Sumer. Mayorova N. 2010

5. Theory of culture. (Tutorial) Ed. Ikonnikova S.N., Bolshakova V.P. 2008

6. https://www.livelib.ru/tag

PostedonAllbest.ru

General information about Mesopotamia and the peoples inhabiting it

Geographical description

(More detailed description in this)

Map of Mesopotamia III millennium BC.

Ancient Greek geographers called Mesopotamia (Interfluve) the flat area between the Tigris and Euphrates, located in their lower and middle reaches. From the north and east, Mesopotamia was bordered by the outlying mountains of the Armenian and Iranian plateaus, to the west it was bordered by the Syrian steppe and semi-deserts of Arabia, and to the south it was washed by the Persian Gulf. Now almost the entire territory where ancient Mesopotamia was located coincides with the territory of the state of Iraq.

The center of development of the most ancient civilization was in the southern part of this territory - in ancient Babylonia. Northern Babylonia was called Akkad, southern Babylonia was called Sumer. Assyria was located in northern Mesopotamia, which is a hilly steppe that extends into mountainous areas.

Ubaid culture

Even before the arrival of the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, there was a peculiar culture called. It existed in the 6th – early 4th millennium BC. and it is believed that the tribes carrying this culture were subarii and they came from the northeast, from the foothills of the Zagros range back in the Neolithic era.

Arrival of the Sumerians

No later than the 4th millennium BC. The first Sumerian settlements arose in the extreme south of Mesopotamia. As already mentioned, the Sumerians were not the first inhabitants of southern Mesopotamia, since many of the toponymic names that existed there after the settlement of the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates by these people could not come from the Sumerian language. The Sumerians found tribes in southern Mesopotamia who spoke a language (the language of the Ubaid culture), different from Sumerian and Akkadian, and borrowed ancient place names from them. Gradually, the Sumerians occupied the entire territory of Mesopotamia (in the north - from the area where modern Baghdad is located, in the south - to the Persian Gulf). But it is not yet possible to find out where the Sumerians came to Mesopotamia. According to tradition among the Sumerians themselves, they came from the Persian Gulf Islands.

The Sumerians spoke a language whose kinship with other languages has not yet been established. Attempts to prove the relationship of Sumerian with Turkic, Caucasian, Etruscan or other languages did not yield any positive results.

Semites (Akkadians)

In the northern part of Mesopotamia, starting from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Semites lived. They were pastoral tribes of ancient Western Asia and the Syrian steppe. The language of the Semitic tribes who settled in Mesopotamia was called Akkadian. In southern Mesopotamia, the Semites spoke Babylonian, and to the north, in the middle Tigris Valley, they spoke the Assyrian dialect of Akkadian.

For several centuries, the Semites lived next to the Sumerians, but then began to move south and by the end of the 3rd millennium BC. occupied all of southern Mesopotamia. As a result, the Akkadian language gradually replaced Sumerian. However, the latter remained the official language of the state chancellery well into the 21st century. BC, although in everyday life it was increasingly replaced by Akkadian. By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Sumerian was already a dead language. Only in the remote swamps of the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates was it able to survive until the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, but then Akkadian took its place there too. However, as a language of religious worship and science, Sumerian continued to exist and be studied in schools until the 1st century. AD, after which cuneiform, along with the Sumerian and Akkadian languages, was completely forgotten. The displacement of the Sumerian language did not at all mean the physical destruction of its speakers. The Sumerians merged with the Babylonians, preserving their religion and culture, which the Babylonians borrowed from them with minor changes.

Amorites

At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. West Semitic pastoral tribes began to penetrate into Mesopotamia from the Syrian steppe. The Babylonians called these tribes Amorites. In Akkadian, Amurru meant "west", mainly referring to Syria, and among the nomads of this region there were many tribes speaking different but closely related dialects. Some of these tribes were called Suti, which translated from Akkadian meant “nomads.”

Kutians and Hurrians

From the 3rd millennium BC in northern Mesopotamia, from the headwaters of the Diyala River to Lake. Urmia, on the territory of modern Iranian Azerbaijan and Kurdistan, was inhabited by the Kutia, or Gutia, tribes. Since ancient times, Hurrian tribes lived in the north of Mesopotamia. Apparently, they were autochthonous inhabitants of Northern Mesopotamia, Northern Syria and the Armenian Highlands. In Northern Mesopotamia, the Hurrians created the state of Mitanni, which in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. was one of the largest powers in the Middle East. Although the Hurrians were the main population of Mitanni, tribes of Indo-Aryan language also lived there. In Syria, the Hurrians appear to have formed a minority of the population. In terms of language and origin, the Hurrians were close relatives who lived in the Armenian Highlands. In the III-II millennium BC. The Hurrito-Urartian ethnic massif occupied the entire territory from the plains of Northern Mesopotamia to Central Transcaucasia. The Sumerians and Babylonians called the country and tribes of the Hurrians Subartu. In certain areas of the Armenian Highlands, the Hurrians persisted in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. In the 2nd millennium BC. The Hurrians adopted the Akkadian cuneiform script, which they used to write in Hurrian and Akkadian.

Arameans

In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. A powerful wave of Aramaic tribes poured from Northern Arabia into the Syrian steppe, into Northern Syria and Northern Mesopotamia. At the end of the 13th century. BC. The Arameans created many small principalities in Western Syria and southwestern Mesopotamia. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The Arameans almost completely assimilated the Hurrian and Amorite populations of Syria and northern Mesopotamia.

In the 8th century BC. the Aramaic states were captured by Assyria. However, after this the influence of the Aramaic language only increased. By the 7th century BC. all of Syria spoke Aramaic. This language began to spread in Mesopotamia. His success was facilitated by both the large Aramaic population and the fact that the Arameans wrote in a convenient and easy-to-learn script.

In the VIII-VII centuries. BC. The Assyrian administration pursued a policy of forcibly relocating conquered peoples from one region of the Assyrian state to another. The purpose of such “shuffles” is to complicate mutual understanding between different tribes and prevent their rebellion against the Assyrian yoke. In addition, the Assyrian kings sought to populate the territories devastated during endless wars. As a result of the inevitable mixing of languages and peoples in such cases, the Aramaic language emerged victorious, which became the dominant spoken language from Syria to the western regions of Iran, even in Assyria itself. After the collapse of the Assyrian power at the end of the 7th century. BC. The Assyrians completely lost their language and switched to Aramaic.

Chaldeans

Since the 9th century. BC. Chaldean tribes related to the Arameans began to invade southern Mesopotamia, which gradually occupied all of Babylonia. After the Persian conquest of Mesopotamia in 539 BC. Aramaic became the official language of the state office in this country, and Akkadian was preserved only in large cities, but even there it was gradually replaced by Aramaic. The Babylonians themselves by the 1st century. AD completely merged with the Chaldeans and Arameans.

Early states of Sumer

At the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennia BC, approximately simultaneously with the emergence of the state in Egypt, the first state formations appeared in the southern part of the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates. At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. Several small city-states arose on the territory of southern Mesopotamia. They were located on natural hills and surrounded by walls. Approximately 40-50 thousand people lived in each of them. In the extreme southwest of Mesopotamia there was the city of Eridu, near it the city of Ur, which was of great importance in the political history of Sumer. On the banks of the Euphrates, north of Ur, was the city of Larsa, and to the east of it, on the banks of the Tigris, was Lagash. The city of Uruk, which arose on the Euphrates, played a major role in the unification of the country. In the center of Mesopotamia on the Euphrates was Nippur, which was the main sanctuary of all of Sumer.

In the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. Several political centers were created in Sumer, whose rulers bore the title of lugal or ensi. Lugal means “big man”. This is what kings were usually called. Ensi was the name of an independent ruler who ruled any city with its immediate surroundings. This title is of priestly origin and indicates that initially the representative of state power was also the head of the priesthood.

Rise of Lagash

In the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. Lagash began to claim a dominant position in Sumer. In the middle of the 25th century. BC. Lagash, in a fierce battle, defeated its constant enemy - the city of Umma, located to the north of it. Later, the ruler of Lagash, Enmethen (circa 2360-2340 BC), victoriously ended the war with the Umma.

The internal situation of Lagash was not strong. The masses of the city were infringed upon in their economic and political rights. To restore them, they united around Uruinimgina, one of the influential citizens of the city. He removed the ensi named Lugalanda and took his place himself. During his six-year reign (2318-2312 BC), he carried out important social reforms, which are the oldest legal acts known to us in the field of socio-economic relations. He was the first to proclaim the slogan that later became popular in Mesopotamia: “Let the strong not offend widows and orphans!” Extortions from priestly personnel were abolished, natural allowances for forced temple workers were increased, and independence from the tsarist administration was restored. Certain concessions were made to ordinary segments of the population:

reduced fees for performing religious ceremonies,
some taxes on artisans have been abolished,
duty on irrigation facilities has been reduced.

In addition, Uruinimgina restored the judicial organization in rural communities and guaranteed the rights of the citizens of Lagash, protecting them from usurious bondage. Finally, polyandry (polyandry) was eliminated. Uruinimgina presented all these reforms as an agreement with the main god of Lagash, Ningirsu, and declared himself the executor of his will.

However, while Uruinimgina was busy with his reforms, a war broke out between Lagash and Umma. The ruler of Umma Lugalzagesi enlisted the support of the city of Uruk, captured Lagash and reversed the reforms introduced there. Lugalzagesi then usurped power in Uruk and Eridu and extended his rule over almost all of Sumer. Uruk became the capital of this state.

Economy and economics of the Sumerian states

The main branch of the Sumerian economy was agriculture, based on a developed irrigation system. By the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. refers to a Sumerian literary monument called “Agricultural Almanac”. It is presented in the form of a teaching given by an experienced farmer to his son, and contains instructions on how to maintain soil fertility and stop the process of salinization. The text also gives a detailed description of field work in its time sequence. Cattle breeding was also of great importance in the country's economy.

The craft developed. Among the city's artisans there were many house builders. Excavations at Ur of monuments dating back to the mid-3rd millennium BC show a high level of skill in Sumerian metallurgy. Among the grave goods, helmets, axes, daggers and spears made of gold, silver and copper were found, as well as embossing, engraving and granulation. Southern Mesopotamia did not have many materials, their finds at Ur indicate brisk international trade. Gold was delivered from the western regions of India, lapis lazuli - from the territory of modern Badakhshan in Afghanistan, stone for vessels - from Iran, silver - from Asia Minor. In exchange for these goods, the Sumerians sold wool, grain and dates.

Of the local raw materials, artisans had at their disposal only clay, reed, wool, leather and flax. The god of wisdom Ea was considered the patron saint of potters, builders, weavers, blacksmiths and other artisans. Already in this early period, bricks were fired in kilns. Glazed bricks were used for cladding buildings. From the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. The potter's wheel began to be used for the production of dishes. The most valuable vessels were covered with enamel and glaze.

Already at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. began to produce bronze tools, which remained the main metal tools until the end of the next millennium, when the Iron Age began in Mesopotamia.

To obtain bronze, a small amount of tin was added to molten copper.

Mesopotamia during the era of Akkad and Ur

(this period is described in more detail in a separate map)

Since the XXVII century. BC e. The northern part of Mesopotamia was inhabited by the Akkadians. The most ancient city founded by the Semites in Mesopotamia was Akkad, later the capital of the state of the same name. It was located on the left bank of the Euphrates, where this river and the Tigris come closest to each other.

Reign of Sargon the Ancient

Around 2334 BC became king of Akkad. He was the founder of a dynasty: starting with himself, five kings, the son replacing the father, ruled the country for 150 years. He probably adopted the name Sargon only after his accession to the throne, since it means “true king” (in Akkadian Sharruken). The personality of this ruler was shrouded in many legends during his lifetime. He spoke about himself: “My mother was poor, I didn’t know my father... My mother conceived me, gave birth to me secretly, put me in a reed basket and sent me down the river.”.

Lugalzagesi, who established his power in almost all Sumerian cities, entered into a long struggle with Sargon. After several failures, the latter managed to win a decisive victory over his opponent. After this, Sargon made successful campaigns in Syria, in the regions of the Taurus Mountains and defeated the king of the neighboring country of Elam. He created the first standing army in history, consisting of 5,400 people, who, according to him, dined at his table every day. It was a well-trained professional army, whose entire well-being depended on the king.

Under Sargon, new canals were built, an irrigation system was established on a national scale, and a unified system of weights and measures was introduced. Akkad conducted maritime trade with India and Eastern Arabia.

Reign of Naram-Suen

At the end of Sargon's reign, famine caused a rebellion in the country, which was suppressed after his death, around 2270 BC, by his youngest son Rimush. But later he became a victim of a palace coup that gave the throne to his brother Manishtush. After fifteen years of reign, Manishtushu was also killed in a new palace conspiracy, and Naram-Suen (2236-2200 BC), son of Manishtushu and grandson of Sargon, ascended the throne.

Under Naram-Suen, Akkad reached its greatest power. At the beginning of the reign of Naram-Suen, the cities of southern Mesopotamia, dissatisfied with the rise of Akkad, rebelled. It was only suppressed after many years of struggle. Having strengthened his power in Mesopotamia, Naram-Suen began to call himself the “mighty god of Akkad” and ordered himself to be depicted on reliefs in a headdress decorated with horns, which were considered divine symbols. The population was supposed to worship Naram-Suen as a god, although before him none of the kings of Mesopotamia had claimed such an honor.

Naram-Suen considered himself the ruler of the entire then known world and bore the title “king of the four countries of the world.” He waged many successful wars of conquest, winning a number of victories over the king of Elam, over the Lullube tribes living in the territory of modern Northwestern Iran, and also subjugated the city-state of Mari, located in the middle reaches of the Euphrates, and extended his power to Syria.

Fall of the Akkadians

Under Naram-Suen's successor Sharkalisharri (2200-2176 BC), whose name translated means “king of all kings,” the collapse of the Akkadian state began. The new king had to enter into a long struggle with the Amorites pressing from the west and at the same time resist the invasion of the Kutians from the northeast. In Mesopotamia itself, popular unrest began, the cause of which was acute social conflicts. The size of the economy, which subjugated the temple economy and exploited the labor of the landless and land-poor Akkadians, increased incredibly. Around 2170 BC Mesopotamia was conquered and plundered by the Gutian tribes living in the Zagros mountains.

III Dynasty of Ur

By 2109 BC. The militia of the city of Uruk, led by their king Utuhengal, defeated the Kutians and expelled them from the country. Having defeated the Gutians, Utukhengal laid claim to kingship over all of Sumer, but soon dominion over southern Mesopotamia passed to the city of Ur, where the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2003 BC) was in power. Its founder was Urnammu, who, like his successors, bore the pompous title “king of Sumer and Akkad.”

Under Urnammu, royal power acquired a despotic character. The tsar was the supreme judge, the head of the entire state apparatus, and he also decided issues of war and peace. A strong central administration was created. In royal and temple households, a large staff of scribes and officials recorded all aspects of economic life down to the smallest detail. Well-established transport operated in the country; messengers were sent with documents to all corners of the state.

The son of Urnammu Shulgi (2093-2046 BC) achieved his deification. His statues were placed in temples, to which sacrifices had to be made. Shulgi issued laws indicating the existence of a developed judicial system. They, in particular, established a reward for bringing a runaway slave to his owner. Punishment was also provided for various types of self-mutilation. At the same time, unlike the later Laws of Hammurabi, Shulgi was not guided by the principle of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” but established the principle of monetary compensation to the victim. Shulga's laws are the oldest legal acts known to us.

Fall of Ur

Under Shulgi's successors, the Amorite tribes, who attacked Mesopotamia from Syria, began to pose a great danger to the state. To stop the advance of the Amorites, the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur built a long line of fortifications. However, the internal position of the state was also fragile. The temple economy required a huge number of workers, who were gradually deprived of the rights of free members of society. For example, the temple of the goddess Baba in Lagash alone owned a land area of more than 4,500 hectares. The army of Ur began to suffer defeats in wars with the Amorite tribes and Elamites. In 2003, the power of the Third Dynasty of Ur was overthrown, and its last representative, Ibbi-Suen, was taken captive to Elam. The temples of Ur were plundered, and an Elamite garrison was left in the city itself.

Babylonia in the 2nd millennium BC.

The time from the end of the reign of the Third Dynasty of Ur to 1595 BC, when the dominance of the Kassite kings was established in Babylonia, is called the Old Babylonian period. After the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, many local dynasties of Amorite origin arose in the country.

Around 1894 BC The Amorites created an independent state with its capital in Babylon. From this time on, the role of Babylon, the youngest of the cities of Mesopotamia, grew steadily over many centuries. In addition to Babylon, there were other states at that time. In Akkad, the Amorites formed a kingdom with its capital in Issin, which was located in the middle part of Babylonia, and in the south of the country there was a state with its capital in Larsa, in the northeast of Mesopotamia, in the valley of the river. Diyala, with its center in Eshnunna.

Reign of Hammurappi

At first, the Babylonian kingdom did not play a special role. The first king who began to actively expand the borders of this state was Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). In 1785 BC, with the help of Rimsin, a representative of the Elamite dynasty in Lapse, Hammurabi conquered Uruk and Issin. Then he contributed to the expulsion from Mari of the son of the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who ruled there, and the accession of Zimrilim, a representative of the old local dynasty. In 1763, Hammurabi captured Eshnunna and the following year defeated the powerful king and his former ally Rimsin and captured his capital Larsa. After this, Hammurabi decided to subjugate Mari, which had previously been a friendly kingdom to him. In 1760 he achieved this goal, and two years later he destroyed the palace of Zimrilim, who sought to restore his independence. Hammurabi then conquered the area along the middle Tigris, including Ashur.

Samsuilong's reign

After the death of Hammurabi, his son Samsuiluna (1749-1712 BC) became king of Babylon. He had to repel the onslaught of the Kassite tribes who lived in the mountainous areas east of Babylonia. Around 1742 BC The Kassites, led by their king Gandash, made a campaign against Babylonia, but were able to establish themselves only in the foothills to the northeast of it.

The Fall of Babylon and the Arrival of the Kassites

At the end of the 17th century. BC. Babylonia, which was experiencing an internal crisis, no longer played a significant role in the political history of Western Asia and could not resist foreign invasions. In 1594 BC. the reign of the Babylonian dynasty came to an end. Babylon was captured by the Hittite king Mursili I. When the Hittites returned with rich booty to their country, the kings of Primorye, the coastal strip near the Persian Gulf, captured Babylon. After this, around 1518 BC. the country was conquered by the Kassites, whose rule lasted 362 years. The entire period indicated is usually called Kassite or Middle Babylonian. However, the Kassite kings were soon assimilated by the local population.

Legal acts of Babylonia

In the 2nd millennium BC. Radical changes were taking place in the Babylonian economy. This time was characterized by active legal activity. The laws of the Eshnunna state, drawn up at the beginning of the 20th century. BC. in the Akkadian language, contain tariffs for prices and wages, articles of family, marriage and criminal law. For adultery on the part of a wife, rape of a married woman and abduction of a free person's child, the death penalty was provided. Judging by the laws, slaves wore special brands and could not leave the city without the permission of the owner.

By the second half of the 20th century. BC. include the laws of King Lipit-Ishtar, which, in particular, regulate the status of slaves. Punishments were established for the escape of a slave from the owner and for harboring a runaway slave. It was stipulated that if a slave married a free man, she and her children from such a marriage became free.

Laws of Hammurabi

The most outstanding monument of ancient Eastern legal thought is the Laws of Hammurabi, immortalized on a black basalt pillar. In addition, a large number of copies of individual parts of this code of law on clay tablets have been preserved. The Code of Law begins with a lengthy introduction, which states that the gods gave Hammurabi royal power so that he would protect the weak, orphans and widows from insults and oppression from the powerful. This is followed by 282 articles of law, covering almost all aspects of the life of Babylonian society of that time (civil, criminal and administrative law). The code ends with a detailed conclusion.

The laws of Hammurabi, both in content and in the level of development of legal thought, represented a big step forward compared to the Sumerian and Akkadian legal monuments that preceded them. The Code of Hammurabi accepts, although not always consistently, the principle of guilt and ill will. For example, a difference is established in punishment for premeditated and accidental murder. But bodily injuries were punished according to the principle of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” dating back to ancient times. In some articles of the law, a class approach is clearly expressed in determining punishment. In particular, severe punishments were provided for obstinate slaves who refused to obey their masters. A person who stole or hid someone else's slave was punishable by death.

In the Old Babylonian period, society consisted of full citizens, who were called “sons of the husband” and muskenums, who were legally free, but not full rights people, since they were not members of the community, but worked in the royal household, and slaves. If someone inflicted self-mutilation on the “husband’s son,” then the punishment was imposed on the perpetrator according to the principle of talion, i.e., “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” and the corresponding self-mutilation inflicted on the muskenum was punishable only by a monetary fine. If the doctor was guilty of an unsuccessful operation on the “husband’s son,” then he was punished by cutting off his hand; if a slave suffered from the same operation, it was only necessary to pay the owner the cost of this slave. If, through the fault of the builder, a house collapsed and the son of the owner of the house died in its ruins, the builder was punished by the death of his son. If someone stole the property of the muskenum, then the damage had to be restored tenfold, while for the theft of royal or temple property, compensation was provided for thirtyfold.

In order not to decrease the number of soldiers and taxpayers, Hammurabi sought to alleviate the plight of those sections of the free population who were in a difficult economic situation. In particular, one of the articles of the law limited debt slavery to three years of work for the creditor, after which the loan, regardless of its amount, was considered fully repaid. If, due to a natural disaster, the debtor's crop was destroyed, then the repayment period of the loan and interest was automatically postponed to the next year. Some articles of the law are devoted to rental law. Payment for a rented field was usually equal to 1/3 of the harvest, and for a garden - 2/3.

For a marriage to be considered legal, a contract had to be concluded. Adultery on the part of the wife was punishable by drowning. However, if the husband wanted to forgive his unfaithful wife, not only she, but also her seducer was freed from punishment. Adultery on the part of a husband was not considered a crime unless he seduced the wife of a free man. The father had no right to disinherit his sons if they had not committed a crime, and had to teach them his craft.

Warriors received land plots from the state and were obliged to go on a campaign at the first request of the king. These plots were inherited through the male line and were inalienable. The creditor could take for debts only that property of the warrior that he himself acquired, but did not endow, which was granted to him by the king.

Assyria in the III-II millennium BC.

Position of Assyria in Mesopotamia

Back in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in Northern Mesopotamia, on the right bank of the Tigris, the city of Ashur was founded. The entire country located on the middle reaches of the Tigris (in Greek translation - Assyria) began to be called by the name of this city. Already by the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. Immigrants from Sumer and Akkad established themselves in Ashur, forming a trading post there. Later, in the XXIV-XXII centuries. BC, Ashur became a major administrative center of the Akkadian state created by Sargon the Ancient. During the III dynasty of Ur, the governors of Ashur were proteges of the Sumerian kings.

Unlike Babylonia, Assyria was a poor country. Ashur owed its rise to its favorable geographical position: important caravan routes ran here, along which metals (silver, copper, lead) and building timber, as well as gold from Egypt, were delivered from Northern Syria, Asia Minor and Armenia to Babylonia, and in exchange they were exported Babylonian agricultural and craft products. Gradually, Ashur turned into a large trade and transshipment center. Along with him, the Assyrians founded many trading colonies outside their country.

The most important of these colony-factories was located in the city of Kanes (Kanish) in Asia Minor (the modern area of Kul-Tepe, near the city of Kaysari in Turkey). An extensive archive of this colony dating back to the 20th-19th centuries has been preserved. BC. Assyrian merchants brought dyed woolen fabrics to Kanes, the mass production of which was established in their homeland, and took home lead, silver, copper, wool and leather. In addition, Assyrian merchants resold local goods to other countries.

The relations of the members of the colony with the inhabitants of Kanes were regulated by local laws, and in internal affairs the colony was subordinate to Ashur, who imposed significant duties on its trade. The supreme authority in Ashur was the council of elders, and by the name of one of the members of this council, which changed annually, events were dated and time was counted. There was also a hereditary position of ruler (ishshak-kum), who had the right to convene a council, but without the latter’s sanction he could not make important decisions.

Capture of Assyria first by the Babylonians and then by the kingdom of Mitanni

To keep the caravan roads in their hands and seize new routes, Assyria had to have strong military power. Therefore, the influence of ishshak-kum began to gradually increase. But in the second half of the 18th century. BC. Assyria was subjugated by the Babylonian king Hammurabi. Around the same time, Assyria also lost its monopoly in caravan trade.

By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. weakened Assyria was forced to recognize the power of the kings of Mitanni. Around 1500 BC Mitanni reached the zenith of its power, capturing areas of Northern Syria. But soon the decline of Mitanni begins. The Egyptians first drove the Mitannians out of Syria, and around 1360 BC. the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I defeated them. Then the Assyrian king Ashuruballit I took advantage of the defeat of Mitanni and captured part of the territory of this state. Later, King Adadnerari I of Assyria (1307-1275 BC) fought with Babylonia and conquered the entire territory of Mitanni. After this, he wanted to enter into an alliance with the Hittite king Hattusili III and invited him to consider him his brother. But the answer was insulting: “What is this talk about brotherhood?.. After all, you and I, we were not born of the same mother!”

Rise of Assyria

In the second half of the 13th century. under King Tukulti-Ninturta I (1244-1208 BC), Assyria became the most powerful state in the Middle East. The Assyrian ruler, having captured Babylonia, appointed his governors there and took the statue of the supreme god of the Babylonians, Marduk, to Ashur from the Temple of Esagila in Babylon. During numerous wars, the power of the Assyrian king increased significantly, but the country was exhausted and weakened by internal unrest. One of the texts reports, for example, that in the middle of the 11th century. BC. The king's son and the nobles of Assyria rebelled, threw the ruler off the throne and killed him with the sword.

Period XV-XI centuries. BC. called in the history of Assyria Middle Assyrian. The so-called Middle Assyrian laws, which were the most cruel of all ancient Eastern laws, date back to this time. Initially, land in Assyria belonged mainly to community members and was subject to systematic redistribution. But starting from the 15th century. BC. it became the subject of purchase and sale, although it was still considered the property of the communities.

Slaves at that time were very expensive, and there were few of them. Therefore, the rich sought to enslave free farmers through usurious loan transactions, since the loan was issued under difficult conditions and secured by field, house or family members. But the laws to some extent limited the arbitrariness of the creditor in relation to persons pledged as debt. However, if the loan was not repaid on time, the hostage became the full property of the lender. If the debt is not paid on time, the creditor could do whatever he wanted with the hostage: "beat, pluck hair, hit ears and drill them" and even sell it outside Assyria.

Babylonia in the XII-VII centuries. BC. and Assyrian power

The struggle between Babylon and Elam

At the end of the 13th century. BC e. The decline of Babylonia begins. A century later, the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I decided that the time had come for reckoning with an old enemy and, attacking Babylonia, plundered the cities of Eshnunna, Sippar, Opis and imposed a heavy tax on them. Shutruk-Nahhunte's son, Kutir-Nahhunte III, continued the policy of plundering Babylonia. The Babylonians rallied around their king Ellil-nadin-ahhe (1159-1157 BC) to liberate the tormented country. However, the war, which lasted three years, ended in victory for the Elamites. Babylonia was captured, its cities and temples were plundered, and the king and his nobles were taken captive. Thus ended the almost six-century reign of the Kassite dynasty, and an Elamite protege was appointed governor of Babylonia.

But soon Babylonia began to gain strength, and under Nebuchadnezzar I (1126-1105 BC) the country experienced a short-term prosperity. A fierce battle took place near the fortress of Der, on the border between Assyria and Elam, in which the Babylonians defeated the Elamites. The victors invaded Elam and inflicted such a crushing defeat on it that after that it was not mentioned in any source for three centuries. Having defeated Elam, Nebuchadnezzar I began to claim power over all of Babylonia. He, and after him and his successors, bore the title “king of Babylonia, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four countries of the world.” The capital of the state was moved from the city of Issin to Babylon. In the middle of the 11th century. BC. semi-nomadic Aramean tribes living west of the Euphrates began to invade Mesopotamia, plunder and destroy its cities and villages. Babylonia again found itself weakened for many decades and, in alliance with Assyria, was forced to fight against the Arameans.

New rise of Assyria

By the end of the 10th century. BC. The Assyrians restored their dominance in northern Mesopotamia and resumed a series of campaigns. By that time, the Assyrian army was superior in size, organization and weapons to the armies of other countries in the Middle East. The Assyrian king Ashurnasir-apal II (Ashurnasirpal) (883-859 BC) passed through the territory of Babylonia and Syria, exterminating the inhabitants of these countries for the slightest resistance. The disobedient were skinned, impaled or tied into entire living pyramids, and the remnants of the surviving population were taken into captivity.

In 876 BC. During one of the campaigns, the Assyrian army reached the Phoenician coast. When in 853 B.C. The Assyrians, under the leadership of their king Shalmaneser III (859-824 BC), made a new campaign in Syria, they met with organized resistance from the states: Syria, Phenicia and Cilicia. At the head of this union was the city of Damascus. As a result of the battle, the Assyrian army was defeated. In 845 BC. Shalmaneser III gathered an army of 120 thousand people and again marched against Syria. But this action was not successful either. However, soon a split occurred in the Syrian union itself, and, taking advantage of this, the Assyrians in 841 BC. undertook another campaign and managed to establish their dominance in Syria. But soon Assyria again lost control over its western neighbor. Under Adad-nerari III, who ascended the throne as a boy, his mother Sammuramat, known in Greek legend as Semiramis, actually ruled for many years. Campaigns in Syria were resumed, and the supreme power of the Assyrian king over Babylonia was established.

Arrival of the Chaldean tribes

Since the 9th century. BC. For many centuries in the history of Babylonia, a large role was played by the Chaldean tribes, who spoke one of the dialects of the Aramaic language. The Chaldeans settled between the shores of the Persian Gulf and the southern cities of Babylonia, in the area of swamps and lakes along the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates. In the 9th century. BC. The Chaldeans firmly occupied the southern part of Babylonia and began to move north, adopting the ancient Babylonian culture and religion. They lived in clans, under the leadership of leaders who sought to maintain independence from each other, as well as from the Assyrians, who were trying to establish their power in Babylonia.

Under Shamshi-Adad V (823-811 BC), the Assyrians frequently invaded Babylonia and gradually captured the northern part of the country. The Chaldean tribes took advantage of this and took possession of almost the entire territory of Babylonia. Later, under the Assyrian king Adad-nerari III (810-783 BC), Assyria and Babylonia had fairly peaceful relations. In 747-734. BC. Nabonassar reigned in Babylonia, who managed to establish stable rule in the central part of the state, but over the rest of the country he exercised only weak control.

Strengthening Assyria under Tiglath-pileser III

The new strengthening of Assyria falls during the reign of Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 BC), who carried out important administrative and military reforms that laid the foundations for the new power of the country. First of all, the governorships were disaggregated, the rights of the governors were limited to collecting taxes, organizing subjects to perform duties and leading military detachments of their regions. The policy towards the conquered population also changed. Before Tiglath-pileser III, the purpose of the Assyrian campaigns was mainly plunder, collection of tribute and the removal of some of the indigenous inhabitants of the captured territories into slavery. Now such people began to be resettled en masse to areas ethnically alien to them, and in their place prisoners were brought in from other areas conquered by the Assyrians. Sometimes the population was left on the land of their ancestors, but was subject to heavy taxes, and the conquered territory was included in Assyria. It paid taxes in agricultural and livestock products, was involved in construction, road and irrigation duties, and was partially obliged to serve in the army (mainly in the wagon train).

A standing army was created, which was fully supported by the state. Its core was the “royal regiment”. The army consisted of charioteers, cavalry, infantry and sapper units. Assyrian warriors, protected by iron and bronze armor, helmets and shields, were excellent soldiers. They knew how to build fortified camps, build roads, and use metal and incendiary weapons. Assyria emerged as the militarily leading power in the Middle East and was able to resume its policy of conquest. The advance of the Urartians into areas previously captured by the Assyrians was stopped.

In 743 BC. Tiglath-pileser set out on a campaign against Urartu, which sought to establish its dominance in Syria. As a result of two battles, the Urartians had to retreat beyond the Euphrates. In 735 BC. The Assyrians made a campaign through the entire territory of Urartu and reached the capital of this state, the city of Tushpa, which they, however, could not take. In 732 BC. Damascus was captured by them. At the same time, Assyria subjugated Phenicia to its power.

Three years later, Tiglath-pileser captured Babylon, after which Babylonia lost its independence for an entire century. However, the Assyrian king refrained from turning it into an ordinary province, but retained the status of a separate kingdom for this country. He solemnly reigned in Babylonia under the name Pulu and received the crown of the Babylonian ruler, performing ancient sacred rites on the day of the New Year's holiday.

The Assyrian Empire now covered all the countries "from the Upper Sea, where the sun sets, to the Lower Sea, where the sun rises" - in other words, from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Thus, the Assyrian king became the ruler of all of Western Asia, with the exception of Urartu and several small regions on the outskirts.

Tiglath-pileser's successors were Sargon II (722-705 BC), Sennacherib (705-681 BC), Esarhaddon (681-669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (669 - about 629 BC) for a hundred years quite successfully maintained a gigantic empire. For a short time, the Assyrians even managed to subjugate Egypt.

The Death of Assyria and the Neo-Babylonian Power

In the last years of Ashurbanipal's reign, the Assyrian state began to disintegrate, and its individual centers began to compete with each other. In 629 BC. Ashurbanipal died, and Sinshar-ishkun became king.

Revolt of Babylonia

Three years later, a rebellion broke out in Babylonia against Assyrian rule. It was led by the Chaldean leader Nabopolassar. In his later inscriptions, he emphasized that he had previously been “a little man, unknown to the people.” At first, Nabopolassar was able to establish his power only in the north of Babylonia.

Having restored the traditional alliance of the Chaldean tribes with Elam, Nabopolassar besieged Nippur. However, pro-Assyrian sentiments were strong in the city, and it was not possible to take it. In October 626 BC. The Assyrians defeated the army of Nabopolassar and broke the siege of Nippur. But by this time, Babylon had gone over to the side of Nabopolassar, and already on November 25, the latter solemnly reigned in it, founding a new, Chaldean (or neo-Babylonian) dynasty. However, a long and fierce war with the Assyrians still lay ahead.

The arrival of the Medes and the destruction of Assyria

Only ten years later did the Babylonians manage to capture Uruk, and the next year Nippur also fell, which, at the cost of great hardships and suffering, remained faithful to the Assyrian king for so long. Now the entire territory of Babylonia was cleared of Assyrians. In the same year, Nabopolassar's army besieged Ashur, the capital of Assyria. However, the siege was unsuccessful and the Babylonians retreated, suffering heavy losses. But soon a crushing blow fell on Assyria from the east. In 614 BC. The Medes surrounded the largest Assyrian city, Nineveh. When they failed to take it, they besieged and captured Ashur and massacred its inhabitants. Nabopolassar, true to the traditional policy of his Chaldean ancestors, came with an army when the battle was over and Ashur was reduced to ruins. The Medes and Babylonians entered into an alliance between themselves, consolidating it with a dynastic marriage between Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, and Amytis, the daughter of the Median king Cyaxares.

Although the fall of Ashur weakened the position of the Assyrian power, while the victors were busy dividing the spoils, the Assyrians, under the leadership of their king Sinsharishkun, resumed military operations in the Euphrates Valley. But in the meantime, the Medes and Babylonians jointly laid siege to Nineveh, and three months later, in August 612 BC, the city fell. After this, brutal reprisals followed: Nineveh was plundered and destroyed, its inhabitants slaughtered.

Part of the Assyrian army managed to make its way to the city of Harran in the north of Upper Mesopotamia and there, under the leadership of its new king Ashur-uballit II, continued the war. However, in 610 BC. The Assyrians were forced to leave Harran, mainly under the blows of the Median army. A Babylonian garrison was left in the city. But the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, fearing the excessive strengthening of Babylonia, a year later sent strong reinforcements to help the Assyrians. Ashuruballit II again managed to capture Harran, killing the Babylonians stationed there. However, Nabopolassar soon arrived with the main forces and inflicted a final defeat on the Assyrians.

As a result of the collapse of the Assyrian power, the Medes captured the indigenous territory of this country and Harran. The Babylonians gained a foothold in Mesopotamia and were preparing to establish their control over Syria and Palestine. But the Egyptian pharaoh also laid claim to dominance in these countries. Thus, in the entire Middle East there were only three powerful states left: Media, Babylonia and Egypt. In addition, there were two smaller but independent kingdoms in Asia Minor: Lydia and Cilicia.

Wars of Babylon and Egypt

In the spring of 607 BC. Nabopolassar transferred command of the army to his son Nebuchadnezzar, concentrating the management of the internal affairs of the state in his hands. The heir to the throne was faced with the task of capturing Syria and Palestine. But first it was necessary to capture the city of Karkemish on the Euphrates, where there was a strong Egyptian garrison, which included Greek mercenaries. In the spring of 605 BC. The Babylonian army crossed the Euphrates and attacked Karkemish simultaneously from the south and north. A fierce battle began outside the city walls, as a result of which the Egyptian garrison was destroyed. After this, Syria and Palestine submitted to the Babylonians. Somewhat later, the Phoenician cities were also conquered.

While in conquered Syria, Nebuchadnezzar in August 605 BC. received news of his father's death in Babylon. He hurriedly went there and on September 7 was officially recognized as king. At the beginning of 598 BC. he made a trip to Northern Arabia, trying to establish his control over the caravan routes there. By this time, the king of Judah, Jehoiakim, prompted by the persuasion of Necho, fell away from Babylonia. Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem and on March 16, 597 BC. took him. More than 3 thousand Jews were taken captive to Babylonia, and Nebuchadnezzar installed Zedekiah as king in Judah.

In December 595 - January 594 BC. unrest began in Babylonia, probably coming from the army. The leaders of the rebellion were executed and order was restored in the country.

Soon, the new Egyptian pharaoh Apries decided to try to establish his power in Phenicia and captured the cities of Gaza, Tire and Sidon, and also persuaded King Zedekiah to revolt against the Babylonians. Nebuchadnezzar, with decisive actions, pushed the Egyptian army back to the previous border and in 587 BC. After an 18-month siege, he captured Jerusalem. Now the kingdom of Judah was liquidated and annexed to the Neo-Babylonian power as an ordinary province, thousands of residents of Jerusalem (all the Jerusalem nobility and part of the artisans), led by Zedekiah, were taken into captivity.

Babylonia under Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus

Under Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylonia became a prosperous country. This was the time of its revival, economic and cultural upsurge. Babylon became a center of international trade. Much attention was paid to the irrigation system. In particular, a large basin was built near the city of Sippar, from where many canals originated, with the help of which the distribution of water during drought and flood was regulated. Old churches were restored and new ones were built. A new royal palace was built in Babylon, the construction of the seven-story ziggurat of Etemenanki, called the Tower of Babel in the Bible, was completed, and the famous hanging gardens were laid out. In addition, powerful fortifications were erected around Babylon to protect the capital from possible enemy attacks.

In 562 BC. Nebuchadnezzar II died, and after this the Babylonian nobility and priesthood began to actively interfere in the policies pursued by his successors and eliminate kings they disliked. Over the next twelve years, there were three kings on the throne. In 556 BC. the throne went to Nabonidus, who was an Aramean, unlike the Neo-Babylonian kings of Chaldean origin who preceded him.

Nabonidus began to carry out religious reform, putting in first place the cult of the moon god Sin to the detriment of the cult of the supreme Babylonian god Marduk. Thus, he apparently sought to create a powerful power, uniting around himself numerous Aramaic tribes, among whom the cult of Sin was very popular. However, the religious form brought Nabonidus into conflict with the priesthood of the ancient temples in Babylon, Borsippa, and Uruk.

In 553 BC. A war began between Media and Persia. Taking advantage of the fact that the Median king Astyages recalled his garrison from Harran, in the same year Nabonidus captured this city and ordered the restoration of what was destroyed there during the war with the Assyrians in 609 BC. temple of the god Sin. Nabonidus also conquered the Tema region in north-central Arabia and established control of the desert caravan routes through the Tema oasis to Egypt. This path was of great importance for Babylonia, since by the middle of the 6th century. BC. The Euphrates changed its course, and therefore maritime trade across the Persian Gulf from the harbors in the city of Ur became impossible. Nabonidus moved his residence to Teima, entrusting the rule in Babylon to his son Bel-shar-utsur.

Fall of Babylon

While Nabonidus was busy with an active foreign policy in the west, a powerful and determined enemy appeared on the eastern borders of Babylon. The Persian king Cyrus II, who had already conquered Media, Lydia and many other countries up to the Indian borders and had at his disposal a huge and well-armed army, was preparing for a campaign against Babylonia. Nabonidus returned to Babylon and began organizing the defense of his country. However, the situation in Babylonia had already become hopeless. Since Nabonidus sought to break the power and influence of the priests of the god Marduk and neglected the religious holidays associated with his cult, influential priestly circles, dissatisfied with their king, were ready to help any of his opponents. The Babylonian army, exhausted in many years of wars in the Arabian desert, was unable to repel the onslaught of the many times superior forces of the Persian army. In October 539 BC. Babylonia was captured by the Persians and lost its independence forever.

Nature and population of Southern Mesopotamia

Name Mesopotamia(Greek mesos- average, potamos- river) was given to the country by the Greek translators of the Old Testament, it can be translated literally as “Interfluve”, i.e. the valley between two rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates. This country is also called Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is divided into two parts: the northern is called Assyria, the southern is Babylonia. In turn, Babylonia was divided into the northern (Central) part - Akkad - and the southern - Sumer.

Southern Mesopotamia had relatively fertile lands. However, due to the dry climate, these soils could only be used by regulating the water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Irrigation made it possible to obtain large harvests. In the spring, under the influence of melting snow in the mountains of Armenia, the water level in both rivers rises to a maximum, and they flood the plains. The water begins to subside in June and reaches its minimum level in autumn. Since the rivers in Mesopotamia flooded late, it became necessary to build dams and dams to protect seedlings from flooding, to dig canals to accumulate water and supply it in a timely manner to where the need arose. Due to the fact that the rivers flooded during the heat, rapid evaporation of water occurred, and this increased the salinization of the soil and led to a decrease in crop yields. After some time, the land became completely unsuitable for crops, and new arable land had to be developed, and residents had to move. Silt also clogged the canals that supplied water to the interior of the country and interfered with the normal flow of rivers. Each ruler was forced to take care of the serviceability of dams, clearing canals and digging new ones, as well as resettling residents in new lands.

Determine the climatic and geographical features of the emergence of the first civilizations (states) in Egypt and Mesopotamia. What impact did they have on the economy and what were the political consequences?

Southern Mesopotamia was poor in other natural resources. There was little stone or wood here, only thickets of giant reeds in the swamps and inexhaustible supplies of river clay. Metals were imported.

Residents grew various grain crops, but barley was especially popular, from which barley beer was also made. An oil with a pungent flavor was obtained from sesame seeds. Onions and garlic were widely used. Flax was grown to produce fiber, and flaxseed oil was used as a medicine.

The real tree of life was the date palm, one of the first cultivated plants in Southern Babylonia; Not a single wild species has been found. High in calories, dates were used as the main sweet. Honey was rare, apparently collected only from wild bees. It is also important that dates were stored for a long time in hot climates. In the 1st millennium BC. e. an alcoholic drink was prepared from them, replacing beer. To obtain high yields of dates, artificial pollination is required. Most likely, this was done by professional gardeners.

Domestic animals were bred in order to have a constant source of fresh meat. Goats, sheep and pigs were easily tamed and provided not only meat, but also wool (sheep) and fluff (goats). Goats and sheep were kept under the care of shepherds in large herds that belonged to the temple or palace. If the livestock was the property of private owners, then they were entitled to a certain share of the income received from the herd. Cattle were originally used as draft power for cultivating land and threshing. Cheeses and butter were made from milk. The meat of large animals was not profitable to use on a daily basis. It had to be eaten all at once, since it was impossible to create reserves of meat in a hot climate. The main beast of burden was donkeys.

There were two peoples living in Southern Mesopotamia: Sumerians And Akkadians. The Sumerians are a special people, their family ties are still unclear. They were not the original inhabitants of Mesopotamia. It has been suggested that the Sumerians came here as warlike nomadic shepherds, imposing themselves on the settled peoples as a ruling caste. Other scholars believe that the Sumerians were peasants themselves, perhaps driven from their Central Asian homelands by climate change. There is no convincing evidence for either point of view. The place of the Sumerian language in the linguistic system has also not yet been established. When the Sumerians arrived in southern Mesopotamia, thriving villages already existed there, and some of them became the basis for later Sumerian cities.

The Akkadians belonged to the Semites. The homeland of the ancient Semites was the interior of the Arabian Peninsula. Expanding deserts forced people to leave the peninsula. Gradually the Sumerians dissolved among the Akkadians. One people was formed - Babylonians.

Civilization of Mesopotamia

Ancient Mesopotamia. Culture of civilizations between the Tigris and Euphrates. Geographical features of the region. The diversity of the ethnic composition of the valley's population.

In the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers at the turn of the 5th and 4th millennia BC. The ancient civilization of the Sumerians arose. The cities located in the lower reaches of the rivers were little dependent on each other, so the Sumerians never managed to unite into a single state, but on the basis of the same type of culture of city-states (Ur, Urk, Umm, Lagash, Sippar, Nippur) a single cultural space arose .

Origins of Mesopotamian civilization.

The economy of Mesopotamia was determined by the natural conditions of the region. The fertile soils of the valley produced rich harvests. The south specialized in date palm cultivation. The extensive pastures of the nearby mountains made it possible to support large herds of sheep and goats. On the other hand, the country experienced a shortage of stone, metal, wood, raw materials for the production of dyes and other vital materials. The excess of some goods and the shortage of others led to the development of trade relations.

Mesopotamia is the country where the world's oldest civilization arose, which lasted approx. 25 centuries, from the creation of writing to the conquest of Babylon by the Persians in 539 BC.

The first information Europeans have about Mesopotamia goes back to such classical authors of antiquity as the historian Herodotus (5th century BC) and the geographer Strabo (at the turn of AD). Later, the Bible contributed to interest in the location of the Garden of Eden, the Tower of Babel, and the most famous cities of Mesopotamia.

Sumerian civilization. Uruk culture. Invention of writing. Cuneiform. Clay books. Formation of a multi-stage temple - ziggurat. Formation of city-states.

In the second half of the 4th millennium BC. In the fertile plains of the Southern Mesopotamia, the first cities - states arose, which by the 3rd millennium BC. filled the entire Tigris and Euphrates valley. The main ones were the cities of Sumer. The first monuments of monumental architecture grew in them, and the types of art associated with it flourished - sculpture, relief, mosaics, various kinds of decorative crafts.

Each city honored its gods. Each of the deities had its own temple, which became the center of the city-state. In Sumer, the main features of temple architecture were finally established.

In a country of turbulent rivers and swampy plains, it was necessary to raise the temple onto a high embankment platform - the foot. Therefore, an important part of the architectural ensemble became long, sometimes laid around the hill, stairs and ramps along which city residents climbed to the sanctuary. The slow ascent made it possible to see the temple from different perspectives. The first powerful structures of Sumer at the end of 4 thousand BC. there were the so-called “White Temple” and “Red Building” in Uruk. Even from the surviving ruins it is clear that these were austere and majestic buildings.

In the 3rd millennium BC. in the Sumerian centers of Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Adab, Umma, Eredu, Eshnun and Kish, more diverse developed types of architecture emerged. Cities constantly at war with each other protected themselves with defensive structures. The remains of these powerful and harsh fortress walls with towers and fortified gates are still visible. Palaces and temples occupied a significant place in the ensemble of each city.

Over the course of many centuries, various types and forms of sculpture gradually emerged. Sculpture in the form of statues and reliefs has been an integral part of temples since ancient times. Stone vessels and musical instruments were decorated with sculptural forms. The first monumental portrait statues of the all-powerful rulers of the states of Mesopotamia were made in metal and stone, and their deeds and victories were depicted in the reliefs of stone steles. When drawing a parallel with the development of Egyptian sculpture, one can undoubtedly see a combination of naive techniques with confident skill, roughness with sophistication.

Sumerian society and later Mesopotamian societies considered themselves to be a kind of self-governing community of gods; power could not be absolutist. Royal decisions had to be approved by collective bodies, a meeting of elders and warriors. In addition, the mortal ruler was a servant of the gods and was responsible for administering their laws.

The first significant evidence of the penetration of Mesopotamian cultural achievements into other areas dates back to the 3rd millennium BC, at the time of the emergence of the Akkadian empire.

Akkakdian stage of Sumerian civilization. The first despotism of Mesopotamia. The despotic monarchy of Sargon the Ancient. Strengthening centralization during the III dynasty of Ur.

Achievements of the Sumerian civilization. Religion of Sumer. Ideas about death and the afterlife. The idea of deification of kings. Myths about the Golden Age and the Flood. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Systematization of scientific knowledge: calendar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, geography, principles of philology. Libraries. Archives. Eduba school for training scribes.

Babylonian civilization of the era of Hammurabi. The Rise of Babylon.

Hammurabi (ruled 1848-1806 BC, according to one of the chronology systems), the most famous of the kings of the 1st Babylonian dynasty. In addition to the famous code of laws, many private and official letters, as well as business and legal documents, have survived. The inscriptions contain information about political events and military operations. From them we learn that in the seventh year of his reign, Hammurabi took Uruk and Issin from Rim-Sin, his main rival and ruler of the powerful city of Larsa. Between the eleventh and thirteenth years of his reign, Hammurabi's power was finally strengthened. Subsequently, he made campaigns of conquest to the east, west, north and south and defeated all opponents. As a result, by the fortieth year of his reign, he headed an empire that stretched from the Persian Gulf to the headwaters of the Euphrates.

What is possible and not possible during the Nativity Fast?

In 2018, the Nativity Fast will begin on November 28. During this period, Orthodox believers prepare to celebrate Christmas...
A powerful prayer from her husband's mistress

Starting a family is the dream of most women. They want to have a loving husband and a bunch of kids. But it's not always a relationship...
Prayer to prevent divorce from your husband Prayer to keep your husband before divorce

This article contains: the most powerful prayer for divorce - information taken from all over the world, the electronic network and...
Strong prayer against quarrels and insults with your husband or wife Prayer not to divorce your wife

Information site about icons, prayers, Orthodox traditions. Prayer for scandals and quarrels in the family, with husband, with children...
Herring under a fur coat - a classic recipe

What would New Year be without champagne, tangerines, Olivier, aspic and everyone’s favorite “Herring under a fur coat”. With the last one...
How to make oatmeal cookies from oatmeal at home

Let's prepare the necessary ingredients for the cookies. The first thing to do is put the water to boil. We need...

2024-01-29 02:58:13

The financial director has it in his genes that the chief accountant must report to him. The difference between a financial director and a chief accountant.

Is it possible to register an employee for the position of financial director - chief accountant? The chief accountant claims...
2024-01-29 02:58:13

Development of enterprise budgets using the example of Uyut LLC Drawing up an annual budget for an enterprise

The head of a small business can easily manage the budget independently. CHECKED! If you manage...

2024-01-29 02:58:13

Place of a business plan in the life cycle

The creation of new projects involves a preliminary economic justification for their feasibility, subsequent...
2024-01-29 02:58:13

Development of a risk management program at the enterprise Risk report plan form

Reporting is generated by the RM, is agreed upon (approved) by the Risk Committee under the Management Board and transmitted to...

2024-01-28 03:22:01

Ecological tales about ladybugs

At the edge of a large, very large meadow, on a long emerald blade of grass lived a tiny Ladybug. God's little...
2024-01-27 04:33:53

Compatibility of Libra with other zodiac signs

Nowadays, it is quite common for people to turn to the stars. With the help of a horoscope a person can find out...

2024-01-27 04:33:53

Why do you dream of catching up with a man? Why do you dream of catching up with your loved one?

Business or friendly. If you were pursuing a stranger, it means your level of trust in the female sex...
2024-01-27 04:33:53

Dream Interpretation: Why do you dream about fish?

according to Freud's dream book If you dreamed about how you were fishing, it means that in real life you can hardly switch off...

2024-01-26 02:52:15
New Year's salad recipes (2016) Meat salad with prunes

The New Year's whirlwind will spin us around so quickly and rapidly that it's time to thoroughly think through the New Year's...
2024-01-26 02:52:15
Vinaigrette with homemade pickles

The article offers you some of the most delicious recipes for making vinaigrette. Vinaigrette is a delicious salad...
2024-01-26 02:52:15
Recipe: Cookies "Straws" - salted Recipes for salted straws for tea

July 4th, 2015 , 08:33 pm Lately, our Nastena has been completely giving up sweets (and thank God),...
2024-01-26 02:52:15
Soviet recipes for Negro kiss cake

Fragrant, very tasty chocolate cake, you can’t stop eating! The Negro’s Kiss cake is very easy to prepare,...
2024-01-25 01:29:08
Dream interpretation of a dead man being alive

Dream interpretation is an ancient art that allows you to at least assess the psychological status...
2024-01-25 01:29:08
Why accidentally break a mirror at home?

As soon as the first mirrors were born, people immediately endowed them with all sorts of mystical...
2024-01-31 04:57:39
What is possible and not possible during the Nativity Fast?

In 2018, the Nativity Fast will begin on November 28. During this period, Orthodox believers prepare to meet...

2024-01-31 04:57:39

A powerful prayer from her husband's mistress

Starting a family is the dream of most women. They want to have a loving husband and a bunch of kids. But it's not always...
2024-01-31 04:57:39

Prayer to prevent divorce from your husband Prayer to keep your husband before divorce

This article contains: the most powerful prayer for divorce - information taken from all over the world, electronic...