Post-mortem changes. Cadaveric spots The concept and essence of late cadaveric phenomena literature

The study of cadaveric phenomena allows us to solve a number of very important questions that clarify the circumstances of death, namely: when death occurred, whether the initial position of the corpse changed. Certain options for the development of post-mortem processes on a corpse can provide preliminary information about the causes of death.

Post-mortem processes developing on a corpse, according to their biological essence, can be divided into three large groups.

1. Early cadaveric phenomena are processes caused by the cessation of life support processes for organs and tissues: ϶ᴛᴏ cadaveric spots, rigor mortis, cadaveric cooling, cadaveric drying out and autolysis.

2. The phenomena of tissue survival are the responses of dying tissues to external stimuli - electrical, mechanical and chemical. The more time passes from the moment of death, the less these reactions will last.

3. Late cadaveric phenomena - changes in the corpse that occur after early cadaveric phenomena have completed their development, including: rotting, mummification, skeletonization, fat wax, peat tanning. These processes are closely related to damage to corpses by animals and plants.

The appearance and development of cadaveric phenomena is influenced by many external and internal factors. Knowledge of their influence on the processes of post-mortem changes in a corpse is necessary, since without such knowledge it is almost impossible to use the dynamics of post-mortem processes to solve forensic and, at the same time, investigative problems.

The main internal factors of this plan will be: the degree of fatness, age, the presence of serious chronic or acute diseases, the degree of alcoholization of the body and some others. These processes are significantly influenced by the cause of death and accompanying phenomena, such as blood loss, duration and severity of the agonal period, etc. The nature of clothing matters. External conditions that influence the development of post-mortem processes include ambient temperature, humidity, and the development of flora and fauna of the environment.

The nature and degree of influence of the factors listed above will be presented when describing specific post-mortem processes.

Early cadaveric phenomena.

Cadaveric spots are areas of body tissue posthumously soaked in blood. Outwardly, they look like large area bruises. The color of cadaveric spots, violet-bluish or purple-blue, depends on many reasons, primarily on the color of the blood and its quantity.

Immediately after death, the skin of a human corpse is pale, perhaps with a slight grayish tint. Immediately after death, body tissues still consume oxygen from the blood, and therefore all blood in the circulatory system acquires the character of venous. Cadaveric spots are formed due to the fact that after circulatory arrest, the blood contained in the circulatory system, under the influence of gravity, gradually descends into the underlying parts of the body, overflowing mainly the venous part of the bloodstream. Blood shining through the skin gives it a characteristic color.

To resolve the issues of how long ago death occurred, the movement of the corpse, and others, it is extremely important to understand the processes of development of cadaveric spots. Cadaveric spots in their development go through three stages: hypostasis, diffusion and imbibition.

Hypostasis is the stage at which blood descends into the underlying parts of the body, filling their vascular bed. This stage begins immediately after circulatory arrest, and the first signs of coloration of the skin can be observed within 30 minutes, if there was no blood loss and the blood in the corpse is liquid. Clearly cadaveric spots will remain 2–4 hours after death.

To determine the stage of development of cadaveric spots, the following technique is used: press on the cadaveric spot, if at the point of pressure the cadaveric spot completely disappears or at least turns pale, then measure the time after which the original color is restored. The fact of a change (non-change) in the color of the cadaveric spot and the time of its recovery are the criteria by which the stage of development of cadaveric spots and, ultimately, the time of death are determined.

Cadaveric spots in the stage of hypostasis completely disappear when pressed due to the fact that the blood only fills the vessels and easily moves through them. After the pressure stops, blood fills the vessels again after some time, and the cadaveric spots are completely restored. When the position of the corpse changes in the ϶ᴛᴏth stage of development of cadaveric spots, they completely move to new places, depending on which parts of the body have become underlying. The hypostasis stage lasts on average 12–14 hours.

The diffusion stage is the next stage in the formation of cadaveric spots; it is also called the stasis stage. As a rule, pronounced manifestations characteristic of the ϶ᴛᴏth stage are noted 12 hours after death. In this stage, the overstretched walls of blood vessels become more permeable, and an exchange of fluids begins through them, which is uncharacteristic of a living organism.

Lymph and intercellular fluid gradually penetrate through the walls of blood vessels into them and mix with the blood, they contribute to hemolysis (disintegration, dissolution) of red blood cells. The liquid part of the blood also penetrates the walls of blood vessels and permeates the surrounding tissues. As a result of these processes, the blood thickens. In the diffusion stage, when pressure is applied to cadaveric spots, they do not disappear completely, but become exceptionally pale, and after some time they restore their original color.

It is worth saying that the full development of the ϶ᴛᴏth stage occurs in the period from 12 to 24 hours.

When the position of the corpse changes during this period of time, the cadaveric spots partially move to those parts of the body that become underlying, and partially remain in the old place due to the saturation of the tissues surrounding the vessels. Previously formed spots become somewhat lighter than they were before the corpse was moved.

The imbibition stage is the third stage of development of cadaveric spots. During this period, a mixture of lymph and intercellular fluid leaked from blood vessels permeates the skin, subcutaneous fat and other body tissues in the underlying sections. This process of tissue saturation with blood begins already at the end of the first day after death and ends completely after 24–36 hours from the moment of death. When you press on a cadaveric spot that is in the stage of imbibition, it does not turn pale. Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that if more than a day has passed since the death of a person, then when such a corpse is moved, the cadaveric spots do not change its location.

The division of the process of changing cadaveric spots into stages is quite arbitrary, since these phases do not have clear boundaries, especially at the borderline moments of time around 12 and 24 hours after death, when processes characteristic of both the previous phase and the subsequent one occur simultaneously.

As mentioned above, a variety of information can be obtained from cadaveric spots. In particular, the unusual color of cadaveric spots may indicate the cause of death. If a person died with significant blood loss, the cadaveric spots will be very faint. When dying from carbon monoxide poisoning, they are bright, red due to the large amount of carboxyhemoglobin; when exposed to cyanide, they are cherry red; when poisoning with methemoglobin-forming poisons, such as nitrites, cadaveric spots have a grayish-brown color. On corpses in water or a damp place, the epidermis loosens, oxygen penetrates through it and combines with hemoglobin, which causes the pinkish-red tint of corpse spots along their periphery.

Changes similar to those that occur at the surface of the skin also occur in the internal organs; these changes are studied during the opening of body cavities and internal organs. Do not forget that it will be important to say that cadaveric spots in the head area, especially the scalp, can be mistaken for a hematoma.

Sometimes, against the background of cadaveric spots, post-mortem hemorrhages, called ecchymosis by doctors, can be found. Externally, they look like rounded areas, slightly protruding above the surface of the skin, measuring up to 5x5 mm, and usually appear 5-6 hours after death. It is worth noting that they are more typical for the corpses of young people who died from drowning in water, from hanging in a noose, from alcohol poisoning, etc. They should not be confused with intravital hemorrhages.

In those places where the skin of the corpse was in close contact with hard protruding areas of the surface on which it was located, the relief of the surface is clearly visible in the form of whitish areas of skin not soaked in blood. In the practice of forensic medicine, there are cases when, based on such patterns on cadaveric spots, the surface on which the corpse was located at the time of the formation of cadaveric spots was identified.

As noted above, one of the main methods for studying cadaveric spots will be the method of applying pressure to the cadaveric spot. Pressure is usually applied in the interscapular or lumbar areas, 2–3 cm from the midline. If a corpse is found in a position other than on the back, the most underlying areas of the cadaveric spots are examined. The pressure is produced by a special dynamometer, and in its absence, by the palmar surface of the nail phalanx of the index finger. At ϶ᴛᴏm the pressure force should be 2 kg per 1 sq. cm, pressure duration 3 seconds. It is extremely important to strictly observe these conditions, since failure to comply will lead to an error in the calculations. The time of restoration of the color of the cadaveric spot is recorded using a stopwatch. After pressing on the cadaveric spot, it is extremely important to turn the corpse so that the place of pressure takes its original position, i.e. one in which a cadaveric spot was formed.

Assessing cadaveric spots over time, taking into account external and internal conditions affecting the development of this post-mortem phenomenon, allows us to solve a number of forensic issues.

1. Cadaveric spots are an unconditional sign of death. The presence of cadaveric spots indicates that the person is dead and not in some state such as lethargic sleep, coma, etc.

2. Cadaveric spots indicate the position of the corpse after death and a change in this position.

3. The dynamics of the development of cadaveric spots is one of the post-mortem processes that makes it possible to judge the time of death.

4. The degree of severity of cadaveric spots gives grounds to judge the speed of death (the duration of the agonal period)

5. The color of cadaveric spots in some cases allows us to judge the possible cause of death, as well as the conditions under which the corpse was found after death.

Rigor mortis. Rigor mortis is usually called the condition of the muscles of a corpse, in which they become denser and fix parts of the corpse in a certain position. A numb dead body seems to become stiff.

Immediately after death, all the muscles of the human body relax, lose their natural elasticity during life, the face takes on a calm appearance, this is probably where the word deceased comes from.

The process of rigor mortis develops simultaneously in all skeletal and smooth muscle muscles. But its manifestation occurs in stages: first in small muscles - on the face, neck, hands and feet, then rigor becomes noticeable in large muscles and muscle groups. Pronounced signs of rigor are observed 2–4 hours after death. Rigor mortis increases within 10–12 hours from the moment of death. For about 12 more hours, rigor remains at the same level. Then it starts to disappear. Forensic scientists use the term resolution of rigor mortis to refer to the process of gradual disappearance of rigor mortis in the muscles of a corpse.

Rigor mortis is assessed by forensic doctors during external examination at the place where the corpse was found and in the morgue. The assessment is made using a three-point system (weak, moderate, good) sequentially in each muscle group. The principle of uneven manifestation of rigor mortis in large, medium and small muscles is the basis for determining the duration of death by rigor mortis.

Rigor mortis can be resolved (destroyed) artificially, by applying physical effort (for example, bending and unbending a frozen limb). If rigor mortis is affected in this way within 8–10 hours from the moment of death, then rigor mortis will be partially restored within further in the disturbed muscles. In cases where rigor mortis is exposed after this period of time, it does not recover. By the way, this pattern is used to resolve the issue of the possible movement of a corpse.

Rigor mortis develops not only in skeletal muscles, but also in the smooth muscles of internal organs. As a result, certain post-mortem processes occur in the internal organs, which must be taken into account when examining corpses. Immediately after stopping, the heart is in a relaxed state, then, as muscle rigor increases, its muscles tense, especially in those parts where it is more pronounced, for example, in the left ventricle, blood is squeezed out of the cavities of the heart under the influence of contracting muscles. With painful changes in the myocardium, the heart muscles almost do not stiffen. Post-mortem changes associated with the formation of rigor mortis also occur in other internal organs.

The process of development of rigor mortis is significantly influenced by various external and internal factors. At elevated ambient temperatures (above +25° C), rigor mortis develops faster, but at lower temperatures the process slows down. Rigor rigor grows faster in dry air, and slower in humid air. In persons with developed muscles, rigor mortis grows faster and reaches greater severity, and, conversely, in children, old people, exhausted and sick people, the cadaveric phenomenon forms slowly and is less pronounced. Rigor mortis develops more strongly with injuries and burns, large loss of blood, diseases of cholera, tetanus, and epilepsy. All these factors are extremely important to take into account to avoid erroneous conclusions based on the results of a rigor mortis study. These factors have the opposite effect on the resolution of rigor mortis. For example, at low temperatures, rigor develops more slowly, but also lasts longer; at elevated temperatures, it forms faster, but also resolves faster.

A muscle condition similar to rigor occurs when a corpse is exposed to elevated temperatures (more than 50°–60° C). In muscles exposed to heat, proteins, and with them muscle fibers, contract, which leads to muscle tension. And since the flexor muscle groups are more powerful than the extensor ones, the corpse as a whole takes on a characteristic pose, called the boxer’s pose.

The study of muscle rigor during an external examination of a corpse at the place of its discovery and in the morgue allows one to obtain information for solving the following important problems.

1. Rigor mortis is a reliable sign of death.

2. The dynamics of development and resolution of rigor mortis makes it possible to resolve the issue of how long ago death occurred.

3. Sometimes the dying posture of a corpse, preserved by rigor mortis, makes it possible to judge the position of a person’s body at the time of death and suggest the cause of death.

Cooling the corpse. Normally, in a living person, the body temperature, measured in the armpit, ranges from +36.4° to +36.9° C. In the internal organs and tissues of the body, the temperature is 0.3–0.5 degrees higher. Constant temperature is ensured by thermoregulation processes. These processes stop after the regulatory activity of the central nervous system stops, and the temperature begins to decrease, trying to equalize the ambient temperature. It should be remembered that the body temperature at the time of death of a person can be higher than the specified norm by 1°, 2° and even 3° C due to infectious diseases, poisoning, overheating of the body and similar processes. Excluding the above, according to some researchers, the temperature of a corpse can increase immediately after death by 1°–3° C. According to literary data, increased body temperature of corpses in the first hour after death is observed in approximately 15% of cases.

Naturally, the rate of cooling of a corpse depends on many external and internal factors. Primarily on the ambient temperature. The lower it is, the more intense the cooling of the corpse. If the ambient temperature is higher than body temperature, the corpse will not cool down at all. Air humidity also affects the cooling process; in a damp, cold environment, cooling is more intense. It is important to know that the availability and condition of clothing plays a big role. Do not forget that the temperature, thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the substance on the surface of which the corpse is located are important. Ventilation of the room, exposure to direct sunlight, etc. play a role.

Of the internal factors, the most important are: fatness (development of subcutaneous fat), massiveness and size, age (children's corpses and the corpses of elderly people cool down faster). People who are exhausted and weakened by the disease, who have lost a lot of blood, lose their temperature more intensely after death.

It must be remembered that when a person is in sub-zero temperatures, the surface parts of the body can be significantly cooled, “icy” to the touch, while the temperature inside the person’s body will be quite high.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that by studying the process of cooling a corpse, we can obtain useful information for solving a number of issues.

1. A decrease in body temperature in the rectum below +20° C is a reliable sign of death.

2. By changing the temperature of the corpse, you can determine the duration of death.

3. If an elevated temperature is detected in a corpse in the first hour after death, assumptions can be made about certain circumstances preceding death.

Corpse desiccation. Immediately after death, the process of cadaveric desiccation begins. From the most moistened and unprotected areas of the body surface, liquid evaporation begins, which leads to drying and thickening of the tissue, these areas of the tissue darken. Such areas of the body will be those in which the epidermis is damaged - the surface layer of the skin, as well as the surfaces of the mucous membranes exposed to the external environment, areas of transition from the mucous membranes to the skin, areas of loose epidermis, areas of the epidermis affected by certain skin pathologies. Specifically: the first to dry out on a corpse are the intravital and postmortem injuries, the eyeballs, the scrotum and head of the penis in men, the labia in women, the area of ​​the red border of the lips, the tip of the tongue protruding from the mouth, and later the tip of the nose, ears, fingertips and etc.

The time characteristics of the appearance of drying out depend primarily on the temperature of the air surrounding the corpse and humidity. Under normal room conditions, drying becomes noticeable after 2–3 hours on the corneas and whites of the eyes, if they are open. Drying of the corneas looks like clouding; such changes are called “Larchet spots.” After 6–12 hours, the exposed areas of the eyeballs become yellowish-gray.

In windy, dry weather, outdoors, the first signs of clouding of the corneas of open eyes are observed within an hour after death.

In cold conditions, the process of drying out the corpses of newborns occurs very quickly. According to some authors, up to 100 grams of liquid per day can evaporate from such a corpse, which can be very noticeable on a small body.

Areas of the epidermis damaged postmortem (so-called parchment spots), as well as areas around the red border of the lips, areas of pathologically altered epidermis after drying can have a reddish-brown color, thereby simulating intravital damage. However, upon careful examination of such areas of the skin, differences are easily detected.

The process of drying a corpse can continue until almost complete evaporation of moisture from it, in which case they speak of mummification of the corpse. This phenomenon will be discussed below.

Signs of cadaveric desiccation are analyzed by forensic scientists to determine the time of death, as well as for other purposes.

Cadaveric autolysis. Cadaveric autolysis, like previous posthumous changes, is considered by most authors to be an early cadaveric phenomenon; some assess this phenomenon as a supravital reaction. The essence of the process is essentially that disorganized tissue enzymes after death continue their impact on surrounding structures, destroying them to one degree or another. Signs of enzyme exposure are found mainly during autopsy. Based on them, as well as on other cadaveric phenomena, the question of how long ago death occurred is decided.

Phenomena of tissue experience.

The second group of phenomena studied on a corpse in order to determine the duration of death is phenomena associated with the survival of individual tissues of the body. After the death of the organism as a whole, individual tissues are still capable of exhibiting functions. It is worth saying that to determine the time of death, they use the ability of these tissues to react in response to a particular irritation. In particular, muscles contract in response to electrical or mechanical stimulation, and some tissues react to chemicals. It must be remembered that such tissue reactions are called supravital.

Muscle response to electrical stimulation. If needle electrodes are inserted into the opposite ends of any muscle of a corpse, for example the biceps, and voltage is applied, then the fresh corpse will experience a contraction of this muscle to one degree or another. The force of contraction is assessed on a three-point scale. A strong contraction is observed up to 2–2.5 hours after death, an average contraction up to 2–4 hours, and a weak contraction up to 4–6 hours after death. The technique requires compliance with certain conditions: the use of a current of a certain voltage and strength. The good thing about the technique is that the influence of external conditions on its results is insignificant.

Muscle response to mechanical stress. When struck by a hard object with a limited striking surface, for example, a metal stick, a swelling is formed on a muscle (say, the biceps) of a fresh corpse, which is called an “ideomuscular tumor.” The presence of such a muscle reaction to mechanical impact indicates that a short time has passed since death. Visually, such a reaction can be detected within a period of up to 6 hours from the moment of death. In the period from 6 to 11 hours, the reaction can only be detected by feeling (palpating) the site of impact. At a later date, the reaction to the impact will be negative, which will be reflected in the formation of an indentation at the site of the impact. External conditions and the cause of death do not have a significant impact on this reaction.

On fresh corpses, the muscles respond to mechanical stimulation of the tendons. When a tendon is struck, the contracting muscles contract. It looks similar to how neurologists test tendon reflexes in patients by tapping the knees and Achilles tendons. It is worth saying that a positive reaction to tapping on all tendons indicates that no more than 1.5–2 hours have passed since death. If only some muscles reacted positively, then about 6–8 hours passed.

The reaction of the pupils to the administration of atropine and pilocarpine. After death occurs, under the influence of internal biomechanisms, the pupils of the eyes dilate, then narrow for about 2 hours, then dilate again.

The pupils react to the administration of atropine and pilocarpine (as well as some other chemicals), dilating or contracting, and the strength of the reaction is inversely proportional to the time of death, which is used to determine the time of death. In the period up to 11 hours after death, a double reaction is observed, namely, from the injection of atropine, the pupil dilates, and after the injection of pilocarpine it narrows. A separate reaction (narrowing or expansion) is detected on average up to 24 hours from the moment of death. After 24 hours, the pupils do not respond to the administration of atropine and pilocarpine.

Late cadaveric changes.

In addition to the early cadaveric changes and tissue survival phenomena described in the previous section, a number of processes develop on the corpse, which differ from the first two groups in their later appearance, which is why they were called late cadaveric phenomena.

Late cadaveric phenomena include: rotting, mummification, skeletonization, fat wax, peat tanning, as well as damage to corpses by animals and plants.

In general, all late cadaveric phenomena are characterized by a strong dependence on the conditions of the corpse’s location and a large scatter in the time characteristics of their occurrence, which significantly complicates their use for solving forensic medical issues.

All late cadaveric phenomena, to a certain extent, can be divided into two groups: the first is destructive, the second is preservative. On one corpse, different cadaveric phenomena can simultaneously develop, for example, mummification and rotting, if parts of the corpse are in different conditions.

Rotting. Rotting belongs to the group of destructive cadaveric phenomena. It is worth noting that it develops as a result of exposure to microorganisms on the tissues of a corpse. Under their influence, tissues are destroyed into simpler biochemical and chemical components. As a result of the formation of substances such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, data mercaptan and some others, there will be a characteristic putrid-cadaverous odor.

Putrefactive bacteria will be common inhabitants of the human intestine.
It is interesting to note that there they (during human life) are in balance with other microorganisms and vital processes of the body, perform their functions and, under normal conditions, do not go beyond the boundaries of their distribution areas. After the death of a person, everything changes: many types of putrefactive bacteria begin to uncontrollably multiply and spread in the human body, which leads to decay of the corpse.

Initially, putrefaction develops most strongly in the large intestine, and is accompanied by the formation of a large amount of gases, which accumulate in the abdomen. Intestinal bloating can be noted as early as 6–12 hours after a person’s death. Then there will be signs of decay in the form of a dirty green color, first in the right iliac region, then in the left. This coloring occurs due to the formation of sulfhemoglobin from blood hemoglobin and released hydrogen sulfide. Under room conditions, putrefactive staining will remain in the iliac areas on the anterior abdominal wall by the end of the second day. The rot then spreads through the blood vessels, mainly veins, to other areas of the body. This process is accompanied by the appearance of the so-called putrefactive venous network - a clearly visible dirty green pattern of veins. Signs of a putrefactive venous network are observed 3–4 days after death.

Also, on the 3rd–4th day of the development of putrefaction, an increase in the accumulation of putrefactive gases in the subcutaneous fat and other tissues is noted. Due to this, swelling of the corpse occurs, the so-called putrefactive emphysema. Body parts increase sharply in size: abdomen, chest, limbs, neck, nose, lips, in men - the scrotum and penis, in women - mammary glands. Bloody discharge is observed from the natural orifices of the body; this should be differentiated from the manifestation of injury. After 4–5 days, blisters filled with a foul-smelling reddish-brown putrid liquid will appear on the surface of the skin due to its delamination. Partially exfoliated epidermis can be displaced due to mechanical action, and when this occurs, the reddish dermis, the underlying layer of skin, becomes visible. It must be remembered that such manifestations of rotting imitate skin burns. On days 6–10, the epidermis completely peels off and can be easily removed along with nails and hair. Subsequently, through the damaged areas of the skin, the accumulated and newly released putrefactive gases leave the corpse, the size of the corpse and its parts decreases. The processes of decay soften and disorganize the tissues - the so-called putrefactive melting of the corpse occurs. As a result, bones are exposed in places, especially in those places where they are covered with a small amount of soft tissue. It is worth saying that complete putrefactive decay of the soft tissues of a corpse (skin, fatty tissue, muscles, certain components of internal organs, etc.) under conditions suitable for decay can occur in 3–4 weeks. After this period, bones, ligaments, cartilage, and formations consisting of a large amount of connective tissue are preserved.

A corpse in a state of significant putrefactive changes is a very unpleasant sight. The presence of putrefactive tissue destruction, their greenish-dirty color, and fetid odor create the basis for a negative assessment of the possibilities of productive forensic research of such corpses. Let us note that it seems that it is impossible to establish the cause of death, the mechanism of its occurrence and resolve other issues regarding such a corpse. However, this is not always the case. On putrefactively altered corpses, it is possible to detect and determine damage, traces of imposition, and certain well-defined pathological processes, for example, cardiosclerosis, atherosclerosis, etc. Therefore, any degree of putrefactive decomposition of a corpse will not be a basis for refusing to prescribe and conduct a forensic medical examination of the corpse .

Skeletonization. In the absence of natural and artificially created processes preserving the corpse, such as mummification, fat wax, peat tanning, exposure to salt solutions, freezing, etc., the process of decay turns into the process of skeletonization. The essence of this post-mortem phenomenon is essentially that through putrefactive melting and as a result of eating the tissues of the corpse by insects, the soft tissues of the corpse completely disappear from the bone base. Clearly visible signs of skeletonization can be noted on the corpse after 1 month of the corpse being in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ conditions. Almost complete skeletonization (only bones, ligaments and cartilage remain) can occur in 3–6 months, and after a year the skeleton disintegrates into individual bones, as most of the ligamentous apparatus is destroyed.

Conditions that accelerate the decay process naturally accelerate the skeletonization process. In this case, the greatest importance for the complete cleansing of skeletal bones from soft tissues is the presence of a large number of insects and other types of animal carrion eaters, complementing and replacing each other in the destruction of the soft tissues of the corpse.

Of the insects in this regard, the most active are flies and beetles of several species. Rodents, in particular rats, destroy the soft tissues of a corpse at the initial stage of decay and even before its signs appear. Parts of the corpse can be chewed by wolves, jackals, cats and dogs. There have been cases of birds damaging corpses. The intense impact of animals on a corpse accelerates its skeletonization.

In an aquatic environment, a corpse can be actively eaten by aquatic animals, primarily various crustaceans, as well as fish.

Plants growing in Russian latitudes usually do not have a significant effect on the corpse. The corpse exhibits only the development of certain types of mold, and when the corpse is in the open ground, certain plants can grow through it. The study of plants in the bed of a corpse sometimes makes it possible to determine how long ago it was located at the place of discovery.

Under certain conditions where a corpse is located, its tissues are subject to the preservative influence of environmental factors.

Mummification. Mummification is the process of post-mortem changes in the tissues of a corpse, during which moisture almost completely evaporates from them. During this process, tissues become denser and decrease in volume; the weight of a completely mummified corpse is no more than one tenth of the original one.

For the development of mummification, a number of conditions are necessary, in particular: good ventilation of the location of the corpse; high temperature, although mummification can also take place at room temperature under conditions of very good ventilation and dry air; low air humidity. Under the most favorable conditions, complete mummification of a human corpse of average build can occur in 4–6 months, while the average time for complete mummification is indicated by different authors within 6–12 months. Partial mummification can be detected on corpses after 1–2 months. The corpses of children and people with a low content of subcutaneous fat mummify faster than others.

Mummified corpses in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙcan be preserved for an indefinitely long time without undergoing changes, therefore determining the age of death from a corpse whose mummification has ended is extremely difficult.

It should be noted that forensic medical examination of mummified corpses makes it possible to resolve a number of issues related to the occurrence of death. In particular, dried corpses retain signs of damage, traces of imposition, and some traces of painful changes in organs and tissues. Therefore, such corpses can and should be carefully examined.

Fat wax. Fat wax is a cadaveric change that is associated with late cadaveric phenomena of the preservative type, its second name is saponification. The main conditions for the formation of fat wax will be high humidity in the environment where the corpse is located and minimal air access. Saponification develops in water, in dense and moist soils and in other similar conditions.

The essence of the process is the gradual decomposition of the fat contained in the corpse and the washing out of some of the derivatives formed during this process. The remaining water-insoluble fatty acids combine with alkali and alkaline earth metal salts, forming a substance called fat wax. Depending on which metal salts the fatty acids are combined with, the fat wax can be either a gelatinous substance of a dirty gray color or a dense substance of gray-white color with a greasy sheen.

Various authors indicate that they observed the first signs of saponification of the tissues of a corpse from 25 days to 3 months after death. It is worth saying that complete saponification of a corpse occurs no earlier than 6–12 months on the corpses of adults; on the corpses of children, perhaps a little faster.

The study of saponification processes only tentatively allows us to speak about the duration of death.

Peat tanning. Peat tanning is a preserving late corpse phenomenon, the essence of which is the tanning (compaction) of tissues under the influence of an acidic environment. In forensic medical practice, corpses that have undergone such a change are even less common than corpses in a fat wax state. Mostly such finds were made in peat bogs, where body tissues of deceased people were exposed to long-term exposure to humic acids. Under the influence of these acids, the skin of corpses and internal organs become denser and acquire a dark color. Under the influence of acids, calcium is washed out of the bones and they become soft and flexible. Peat-tanned corpses last a very long time. It is possible to detect and study damage on such corpses.

Various authors have included several more post-mortem processes in the group of preservative cadaveric changes. Salting of corpses is a phenomenon in which a corpse is exposed to concentrated solutions of salts or dry salts, and by their influence they stop the processes that destroy the corpse. There are literary data indicating the possibility of preserving corpses when they get into oil. Formalin, certain alcohols and other chemicals have a preservative effect on biological tissues. Low temperature is one of the factors that can preserve corpses unchanged for a long time. The corpses of prehistoric animals are known to have been preserved to this day in permafrost.

The conditions under which the corpse is located from the moment of death until the moment of its examination may change. And then, instead of some post-mortem processes, others begin to develop. In practice, there are common cases when different conditions simultaneously act on a corpse and, consequently, its different parts change in different ways. For example, a corpse located on the soil, from the ground side, rots and is destroyed by corpse-eating insects, and at this time the parts of the body facing upward are mummified due to ventilation and drying.

If a corpse with signs of beginning rotting ends up in a dry, well-ventilated place, the rotting processes are suspended and mummification develops.
It is worth noting that the decay process stops when the ambient temperature drops below 0° C. Conversely, a corpse preserved in some way, for example, frozen in the cold season, can begin to rot and be destroyed by animals when it warms up.

Chapter 43. Cadaveric phenomena

43.1. Early cadaveric phenomena

After death occurs, certain changes occur in the corpse. Their development and manifestation depend on many factors (cause of death, air temperature, etc.). Reliable signs of death are divided into early(appearing shortly after death) and late(observed some time after death).

Early cadaveric phenomena are of great forensic medical importance, as they allow solving a number of important problems for the investigation: determining the time of death, the initial position of the corpse, suggesting poisoning with certain toxic substances, etc. Early cadaveric changes include: cooling of the corpse, formation of cadaveric spots and rigor mortis, partial drying of the corpse, cadaveric autolysis.

Cooling the corpse. Due to the cessation of metabolic processes in the body, the temperature of the corpse gradually decreases to the ambient temperature (air, water, etc.). The degree of cooling depends on a number of factors: ambient temperature (the lower it is, the faster the cooling occurs, and vice versa), the nature of the clothing on the corpse (the warmer it is, the slower the cooling occurs), fatness (in obese people, cooling occurs more slowly than in exhausted), causes of death, etc. Parts of the body not covered by clothing cool faster than those covered. The influence of all these factors on the cooling rate is taken into account approximately.

The literature contains data on the time required to cool the corpse of an adult to ambient temperature: at a temperature of +20C - approximately 30 hours, at +10C - 40 hours, at +5C - 50 hours. At low temperatures (below -4C), cooling turns to freezing. It is better to measure the temperature of a corpse in the rectum. It is generally accepted that, on average, the temperature in the rectum decreases at room temperature (+16-17C) by about one degree per hour and, therefore, by the end of the day it is compared with the ambient temperature. The temperature of the corpse should be measured after a strictly defined time - at the beginning and at the end of the inspection of the crime scene, and then after the corpse arrives at the morgue (taking into account the ambient temperature). It is better to measure the temperature every two hours.

In the absence of a thermometer, the temperature of a corpse can be judged approximately by touching closed parts of the body (open parts of the body cool faster and do not reflect the temperature of the entire corpse). It is better to do this by feeling the armpits of the corpse with the palm of your hand. The degree of cooling of the corpse is one of the reliable signs of death (body temperature below +25C usually indicates death).

Cadaveric spots. They arise due to post-mortem redistribution of blood in the corpse. After cardiac arrest, the movement of blood through the vessels stops, and due to its gravity, it begins to gradually descend into the relatively lower located parts of the corpse, overflowing and expanding the capillaries and small venous vessels. The latter are visible through the skin in the form of bluish-purple spots, which are called cadaveric spots. The higher located parts of the body do not have cadaveric spots. They appear approximately two hours (sometimes 20-30 minutes) after death. There are several stages in their development.

Stage of hypostasis (leakage) — This is the initial period of formation of cadaveric spots. It reaches full development 5-6 hours after death and lasts 6-12 hours. During this period, blood moves into the vessels of the underlying parts of the corpse, and it begins to shine through the skin in the form of blue-purple spots. In the stage of hypostasis, cadaveric spots completely disappear when pressed (blood is squeezed out of the vessels), and a few seconds after the pressure stops, the color of cadaveric spots is restored again. If the position of the corpse is changed at this stage, the cadaveric spots will completely move in accordance with the new position of the body. When the cadaveric spots are cut, dilated venous vessels are visible, from which liquid dark red blood flows.

Diffusion (percolation) stage — the second stage of the formation of cadaveric spots. It lasts from approximately 8 to 24-36 hours after death. During this period, part of the blood (plasma), colored red by the hemoglobin of disintegrated red blood cells, begins to leak through the vascular wall and permeate the surrounding tissues. Now cadaveric spots do not completely disappear when pressed, but only turn pale and more slowly restore their color after the pressure stops. When the position of the body changes, the spots can partially move (disappear on the previous ones and appear on new areas of the body - the underlying ones), but they are partially preserved in the place of their early formation (the color of such preserved cadaveric spots will be somewhat paler). When the skin is incised in the area of ​​the cadaveric spot, a reddish bloody liquid drains from the surface of the cut; the vessels contain a small amount of thick blood, which is released from the cut slowly in drops.

Stage of imbibition — the third stage of the formation of cadaveric spots. It is characterized by persistent impregnation (staining) of tissues with blood plasma. At this stage, cadaveric spots do not change color or disappear when pressed, and do not move when the position of the corpse changes. When the area of ​​the spot is cut, blood does not flow out of the cut vessels; a pinkish liquid flows from the cut surface.

When the corpse is positioned on the back, cadaveric spots are located on the posterior and posterolateral surfaces of the body, on the stomach - on the front surface of the body, when the corpse is in a vertical position (hanging) - on the limbs and lower abdomen. Knowledge of this data allows the investigator and expert to determine the position of the corpse after death, as well as whether the corpse was moved or not. So, if the corpse lies on its back, and the cadaveric spots are located on the front surface of the body, it means that the position of the corpse changed a day or more after death. If cadaveric spots, when the corpse is positioned on the back, are located both on the posterolateral surface of the body and the anterior one, and on the latter they are pale, this will also indicate a change in the position of the corpse, but at an earlier time after death (14-24 hours later). Therefore, when examining a corpse at the scene of an incident, it is necessary to compare the location of cadaveric spots with the position of the corpse (whether they are located in the underlying parts of the body of the corpse).

Example.

On May 20, 1997, the corpse of a man with signs of violent death was discovered in the forest area of ​​Sokolniki Park. An investigative team with the participation of a forensic expert examined the scene of the incident and the corpse. When the examination began, the corpse was lying on its back. When examining the corpse, injuries were discovered in the form of hematomas and abrasions in the head, left part of the cervical region, right collarbone, right forearm, and groin area. A clearly defined strangulation groove 7-10 mm wide and 4-6 mm deep was found on the neck of the corpse. Cadaveric spots are located on the front and anterolateral surfaces of the body, which indicated that the process of their occurrence occurred in a different position of the body. The discrepancy between the location of the cadaveric spots and the position of the corpse, the presence of signs of violent death in the absence of signs of struggle on it allowed the investigator, as one of the workers, to choose the version that the murder of the man was committed in another place, after which his corpse was taken to the forest in order to hide the traces crimes. As a result of the investigation, P. and B. were convicted of the murder of citizen K., whose corpse was discovered on May 25, 1997, on May 18, 1997 in the basement of a residential building located on the street. Malinkovskaya, they, for selfish reasons, beat up citizen K., and then B. strangled K. with a cord. On the night of May 19-20, 1997, P. and B. in B.’s car took K.’s corpse to the Sokolniki forest park. .

Against the background of cadaveric spots, it is sometimes possible to distinguish prints of clothing and objects that were under the corpse in the form of lighter areas of skin (places pressed by the weight of the body to various objects look paler on the corpse due to the squeezing of blood from them).

When examining a corpse at the scene and in the morgue, attention is paid to the presence and severity of cadaveric spots, their color and the area they occupy (prevalence), disappearance or change in color when pressed. In young healthy people, cadaveric spots are usually well defined, blue-purple in color, located almost over the entire back and partially on the lateral surfaces of the body. In cases of mechanical asphyxia and other types of rapid death, when the blood remains liquid, the cadaveric spots are abundant, diffuse, and blue-purple in color. With large blood loss, as well as in elderly or exhausted people, cadaveric spots usually develop slowly and are weakly expressed, limited in surface area.

In some poisonings, cadaveric spots have an unusual color: pinkish-red (carbon monoxide), cherry (hydrocyanic acid and its salts), grayish-brown (Berthollet salt, nitrites). The color of cadaveric spots also depends on changes in blood hemoglobin. In some cases, it may change when the environment surrounding the corpse changes. For example, when removing the corpse of a drowned person on the shore, the blue-purple cadaveric spots on his body due to the penetration of air oxygen through the loosened skin can change color to pink-red.

When examining a corpse, sometimes you may not notice bruises located in the area of ​​cadaveric spots or on the border with them. In such cases, cross-shaped incisions are made in suspicious areas: if there is a bruise, limited hemorrhage is visible. In places covered with clothing (tight collar, scarf, etc.), cadaveric spots may not form, and such areas appear as light stripes against the background of bluish cadaveric spots. They can be mistakenly mistaken for a strangulation groove formed when the neck is compressed with a loop.

Rigor mortis. After death occurs, biological processes occur in the muscles of the corpse, leading first to relaxation, and then (3-4 hours after death) to their contraction, hardening and rigor. In this state, the muscles of the corpse prevent passive movements in the joints, therefore, physical force must be used to straighten the limbs that are in a state of severe rigor mortis. Full development of rigor mortis in all muscle groups is achieved on average by the end of the day. After 1.5-3 days, rigor disappears (resolves), which is expressed in muscle relaxation.

A certain sequence can be traced in the development of rigor mortis; it follows a descending pattern - first, the masticatory muscles of the face undergo rigor, then the muscles of the neck, chest, abdomen, upper and lower extremities. Rigor mortis is allowed in the reverse order (from bottom to top). However, this scheme is correct only under certain conditions. If rigor mortis is artificially disrupted (for example, by applying force to straighten the upper limbs), then in the first 10-12 hours after death it is able to recover, but to a weaker extent; after this period, rigor mortis does not recover, and the muscles remain in a relaxed state. Such a violation of rigor mortis is possible when moving a corpse, when removing clothes from it and other circumstances. Therefore, when examining a corpse at the scene of an incident, it is necessary not only to establish the presence of rigor mortis, but also to compare the degree of its severity in different muscle groups.

Example.

On suspicion of murder of citizen S., whose body was discovered on March 31, 1997, near the fence of automobile plant No. 133, previously convicted K., a worker of the said automobile plant, was detained, in whom S.’s personal belongings were found - a fur jacket and a sweater. During the investigation, K. denied his guilt in committing the murder, stating that on March 31, 1997, at 7 o’clock in the morning, while going to work at the automobile plant, he discovered the corpse of S., after which, having removed the jacket and sweater from the corpse, he took the things to one of the production premises of the automobile plant. During the investigation, it was established that K. was not involved in the murder of S. One of the main grounds indicating the veracity of K.’s testimony was the fact that when examining the corpse, the forensic expert noted the presence of pronounced rigor mortis in the area of ​​​​the joints of the lower extremities of the corpse in the complete absence this phenomenon occurs in the joints of the shoulder girdle, in the area of ​​the arms and is preserved to a weak degree in the area of ​​the cervical spine.

The development of rigor mortis accelerates in conditions of high temperature (after 2-4 hours), and at low temperatures it is delayed (after 10-12 hours). Rigor mortis in the corpses of emaciated persons occurs very quickly, since the mass of the muscles is small and their rigor requires less time than well-developed muscles. There is a rapid development of the process of rigor mortis when glycogen reserves are depleted. The literature describes cases where rigor mortis developed very quickly, while fixing the position of the corpse at the moment of death. More often, such cases are observed with severe mechanical damage to the medulla oblongata (for example, with a gunshot wound). The so-called cataleptic rigor mortis is also possible, which develops very quickly and also fixes the person’s posture at the moment of death.

The presence and severity of rigor mortis is determined by the tightness or relaxation of muscles, or by checking the possibility of movement in large joints.

Corpse desiccation. After death occurs, the body begins to lose fluid and partially dry out. Drying of the skin and visible mucous membranes becomes noticeable several hours after death. First of all, areas covered with the stratum corneum of the skin or moisturized during life dry out. Relatively quickly (5-6 hours after death), the corneas of open or half-open eyes dry out (they become cloudy, acquire a whitish-yellowish color), the mucous membrane and the border of the lips (dense, wrinkled, brownish-red). Such changes in the mucous membranes and skin are sometimes mistaken for intravital deposits due to injury. If the tip of the tongue protrudes from the mouth, it also becomes dense and brown.

Areas of intravital and postmortem deposits (obtained during transportation of a corpse, providing assistance to a victim, etc.) also quickly dry out and have a brownish with a red tint or a “waxy” color. They are called "parchment spots." The day of establishing the intravital or posthumous origin of such “stains” is necessary. Often, in the first time after death, the affected areas of the skin may not be noticeable. As they dry, they acquire their characteristic appearance. The detection of “parchment spots” of intravital origin may indicate the nature and location of the application of force during mechanical injuries, and, in combination with other data, the nature of violence (for example, compression of the neck with hands during strangulation, damage to the genital area during rape, trauma to the anterolateral surfaces chest as a result of artificial respiration performed on the victim, etc.).

The skin and mucous membranes of newborns, children and the elderly dry out especially quickly. Signs of cadaveric desiccation are used during an external examination of a corpse to ascertain death, when resolving questions about the time of its occurrence, about the intravital or postmortem origin of damage to the skin.

Cadaveric self-digestion (autolysis). With the onset of death, the tissues of the corpse undergo self-digestion under the influence of enzymes, especially tissues and organs rich in enzymes: pancreas, adrenal glands, liver, etc. Internal organs, under the influence of autolysis, become dull, become flabby, and are saturated with red-colored blood plasma. The mucous membrane of the stomach, under the influence of digestive juices, undergoes rapid self-digestion.

In infants, such self-digestion can lead to the destruction of the stomach wall and the release of its contents into the abdominal cavity. Sometimes the phenomena of autolysis in the gastrointestinal tract are mistakenly mistaken for the action of destructive poisons (acids, alkalis, etc.).

43.2. Late cadaveric changes

The corpse, depending on the nature of the processes developing in it, is subjected to destruction (rotting) or preservation - mummification, peat tanning, transformation into fat wax. The formation of such changes ends a month and even years after death. They are called late cadaveric changes (phenomena). Their character largely depends on the conditions in which the corpse is located.

The process of decay ultimately leads to the complete disappearance of the organic compounds of the corpse. The development of preservative forms of late cadaveric phenomena largely preserves the appearance of the corpse. Artificial preservation is currently mainly used for short-term preservation of corpses before burial.

Rotting — a complex process of decomposition of organic compounds, primarily proteins, under the influence of microbes. It usually begins on the second or third day after death. The development of decay is accompanied by the formation of a number of gases (hydrogen sulfide, methane, ammonia, etc.) with a specific, unpleasant odor. The intensity of the decay process depends on many reasons. The most significant factors are ambient temperature and humidity. Rotting occurs quickly at an ambient temperature of +30 - +40C. It develops faster in air than in water or soil. Corpses in coffins rot even more slowly, especially when they are sealed. The decay process slows down sharply at a temperature of 0-1°C; at a lower temperature it can completely stop. Putrefactive processes are significantly accelerated in cases of death from sepsis (blood poisoning) or in the presence of other purulent processes.

Rotting usually begins in the large intestine. If the corpse is in normal room conditions (+16 - +18°C), then spots appear on the skin, in areas of the large intestine closer to the anterior abdominal wall (iliac regions - lower lateral parts of the abdomen) on the 2nd-3rd day green in color, which then spread throughout the body and cover it entirely on the 12th-14th day. The gases formed during decay permeate the subcutaneous tissue and swell it (cadaveric emphysema). The face, lips, mammary glands, abdomen, scrotum, and limbs are especially swollen. At the same time, the body increases significantly in volume. Due to the decay of blood in the vessels, the venous network begins to appear through the skin in the form of branched figures of a dirty green color, clearly visible during an external examination of the corpse. Under the influence of gases, the tongue may be pushed out of the mouth. Putrefactive blisters filled with bloody fluid form under the surface layer of the skin, which burst over time. The gases formed during rotting in the abdominal cavity can even push the fetus out of the uterus of a pregnant woman and at the same time turn it inside out (posthumous birth).

During the process of decay, the skin, organs and tissues gradually soften and turn into a fetid mushy mass, exposing bones. Over time, all soft tissues melt and only a skeleton remains from the corpse. Depending on the burial conditions (the nature of the soil, etc.), complete destruction of the soft tissues and skeletonization of the corpse occurs within approximately 3-4 years. In the open air, this process ends much faster (in the summer - within several months). Skeletal bones can be preserved for tens or hundreds of years. The hair color of corpses in the ground changes.

Sharp putrefactive changes in the corpse are not an obstacle to its forensic examination. Even in this condition of the corpse, various injuries can be detected, especially on the bones, which are of important expert significance. Investigative and forensic practice knows cases of solving a number of murders committed by a criminal with high medical qualifications.

Example.

A forensic medical examination of the corpse of medical institute professor P., recovered from the river, did not reveal any signs of violent death; only a study of brain tissue indicated the presence of extensive hemorrhage in the parietal region. A criminal case on this fact was not initiated due to the absence of signs indicating a murder had been committed. Shortly before the death of Professor P., his daughter died from a massive cerebral hemorrhage, as well as a fairly young employee of the department of the same institute. The professor’s colleagues were haunted by the thought of the possible criminality of these deaths. Taking into account the existing relations in the professor’s family, suspicion fell on his son-in-law, an employee of the department S. The discovery of a pocket knife with a broken awl in his possession increased the suspicion of his colleagues, including regarding the probable method of murder. Seven months after the burial, the corpse of Professor P. was exhumed and subjected to additional forensic examination, as a result of which a small fragment of an awl was extracted from the skull of the corpse using a magnet. A through hole of the corresponding diameter was discovered in the parietal region of the skull, which was not noticed during the initial examination of the corpse. The investigation established that S. committed the murders of his wife, father-in-law and colleague in the same way, inflicting a penetrating wound to the parietal region of the skull with an awl of a penknife.

The degree of development of putrefactive decomposition of the corpse is used to make an approximate judgment about the duration of death. Sharp putrefactive changes in the corpse make it significantly difficult, and sometimes impossible, to determine the intravital or postmortem origin of the damage present on the corpse, as well as the cause of death in diseases.

Mummification. Under certain conditions, the rotting that has begun can be stopped due to the rapid drying of the corpse. This phenomenon is called mummification. Under favorable conditions (dry air and sufficient ventilation), complete drying occurs, and the weight of the mummified corpse is about 1/10 of the original. Mummification usually occurs when corpses are found in attics, when they are buried in dry coarse-grained and sandy soils, in well-ventilated crypts, etc. All other things being equal, the rate of development of mummification depends on body weight. It takes 6-12 months to completely mummify an adult corpse. In a state of natural mummification, corpses are preserved for a long time.

The skin of a mummified corpse takes on the appearance of dense parchment of a brownish-brown color, sometimes becoming very brittle, the internal organs also dry out completely, lose their appearance, sharply decrease in size and appear as dry, shapeless formations in the form of films. In some cases, only certain parts of the corpse, most often limbs, are mummified.

The rapid drying and preservation of corpses during mummification makes it possible to use them to describe and identify a person (in some cases, for these purposes it is necessary to resort to restoration of the corpse). On the skin of such corpses, the damage that existed during life (strangulation groove, damage from sharp instruments, firearms, etc.) is well preserved, the nature and origin of which can be determined during examination. It is possible to establish previously suffered diseases of the skeletal system, group specificity of proteins of tissues and organs, which corresponds to the blood group.

Fat wax. When corpses are buried in damp, clayey or swampy soil, as well as when they remain in stagnant bodies of water, the rotting that has begun due to the lack of oxygen is stopped, the tissues and organs of the corpse gradually pass into the state of fat wax (saponification of the corpse). Fat wax is a grayish-white granular mass with a greasy sheen and a characteristic smell of rancid cheese. As a result, the fabrics acquire a whitish-yellowish color, a coarse-grained appearance, and gradually harden and become crumbly. The development of adipose wax is promoted by the increased fat content in the tissues of the corpse.

The formation of fat wax becomes noticeable after 3-5 weeks. The corpse of a newborn usually turns completely into the adipose wax state after 5-6 months, and the corpse of an adult - no earlier than after 10-12 months. But even in this state, the corpses are suitable for identification; they may retain traces of damage, strangulation grooves and other changes that are of great importance for the investigation and examination. When examining internal organs, it is sometimes possible to identify even various painful changes.

Peat tanning. When a corpse falls into swampy soil or peat bogs, under the influence of the humic acids and tannin they contain, it undergoes so-called peat tanning. In this case, the skin of the corpse is tanned, becomes dense, dark brown in color, internal organs decrease in size, mineral salts in the bones dissolve and are washed away, the bones become soft and are easily cut with a knife, resembling cartilage in their consistency.

In this state, corpses are preserved for a long time. Peat tanning fixes the damage present on the corpse and makes it possible to identify the deceased.

Natural preservation of a corpse can also occur in other conditions that contribute to the cessation of the decay process at the very beginning of its development (staying the corpse in water with a high concentration of salts, in oil, at low ambient temperatures, etc.). In such cases, corpses can be preserved for a long time, which allows the expert to resolve a number of issues important for the investigation (cause of death, nature of injuries, etc.).

Destruction of a corpse by animals. Corpses are severely damaged and even completely destroyed by various insects, rodents, predators, etc.

Of the insects, flies (house flies, corpse flies, blue flies, meat flies, etc.) are especially destructive to the corpse. In the warm season, soon after death (during the first hours), a large number of fly eggs can be seen around the eyes, in the openings of the nose, in the mouth, and in wounds. On the second day, white, worm-shaped larvae appear, which, secreting proteolytic enzymes, actively eat the soft tissues of the corpse. Feeding around the clock, in the 2nd week they thicken to 0.3-0.4 cm, their length reaches 1.5 cm. By the end of the 2nd week, the larvae stop feeding and pupate, forming a false cocoon, or puparium, in which there is doll Certain species of flies pupate on a corpse; larvae of other species go to a depth of 15-20 cm, where they form a pupa. After 15-30 days (depending on the ambient temperature), adults emerge from the pupae.

In general, the biological development cycle of flies mainly depends on the ambient temperature: when the temperature rises, it accelerates, and when the temperature drops, it slows down. Under favorable conditions, fly larvae can completely skeletonize the corpse of an adult in one month. The speed of skeletonization depends not on the size of the corpse, but on environmental conditions. Since the cyclical development of flies and other insects on a corpse can be used to approximate the time of death, eggs, larvae, pupae and adult insects found on the corpse should be collected and transferred to the investigator for the appointment of an entomological examination.

Damage to corpses by ants is known (it is believed that within two months they can turn the corpse of an adult into a skeleton), as well as beetles, carrion eaters, ticks, and cockroaches.

When examining a corpse, damage caused by dogs, wolves, jackals, foxes and other animals is sometimes revealed.

These lesions are quite typical - they have an irregular shape with smooth, scalloped (jagged) edges.

In such cases, hair from these animals and droppings may be found around the corpse.

Damage can be caused to a corpse in bodies of water by predatory fish, crayfish, leeches, crabs and other inhabitants; in the open air - by some birds (for example, crows, vultures) that peck out individual areas of the skin, eyes (such damage is sometimes mistaken for puncture wounds) .

43.3. Establishing the time of death

Establishing the time of death is one of the main issues resolved by a forensic expert when examining a corpse at the scene and examining it in the morgue. Knowing the time of death in some cases makes it possible to exclude or confirm the involvement of certain persons in the commission of a crime, and to verify the accuracy of the testimony of witnesses and suspects. Comparison of the time of death of an unknown person with the time of disappearance of a particular person allows us to assume or exclude the possible belonging of the corpse under study to this person.

Currently, most of the methods used to determine the occurrence of death are based on the patterns of development of cadaveric phenomena, especially early ones. Recently, for this purpose, forensic medical practice has begun to increasingly use methods that reveal the preservation of vital functions in individual organs and tissues of the corpse in the first hours after death, as well as the dynamics and patterns of chemical changes occurring in the fluids of the corpse.

Some of the existing methods make it possible to judge the time of death indirectly (methods that establish the time of burial of a corpse, the time it spent in water, etc.).

43.4. Determination of the duration of death based on cadaveric phenomena

Study of corpse cooling. There is a certain pattern in the cooling sequence of a corpse. In most cases, the process of cooling a corpse is completed completely within the first day after death (according to some sources - within the first 16 hours after death, according to others - no earlier than 1.5 days after death). Cooling of a corpse begins with the exposed parts of the body; the hands and feet cool first. A noticeable cooling of exposed parts of the body can be detected 1-2 hours after death. Warmth is retained longest in the armpits, stomach and neck under the chin. Therefore, it is recommended to measure body temperature in the armpits, rectum, mouth and other parts of the body. This is done using a medical (maximum) thermometer or some electric thermometers produced by our industry, the latter being preferable. Some thermometers are equipped with special sensors for measuring temperature in the rectum, armpit, etc.

Table 1.

Dynamics of corpse cooling (V.E. Loktev, B.A. Fedosyutkin, 1992).

Study of cadaveric spots. The time of death is determined based on the presence of cadaveric spots, their ability to turn pale and disappear when pressed, taking into account the conditions affecting the rate of appearance and intensity of cadaveric spots, the amount and condition of the blood (thick or thin), the reasons causing this or that state (disease , poisoning, injury). Thus, with asphyxia, sepsis and a number of other conditions in which the blood remains liquid, cadaveric spots appear quickly and are usually sharply expressed. With thick blood, cadaveric spots are revealed slowly. Cadaveric spots appear very quickly upon death from carbon monoxide poisoning (the transition to the imbibition stage is observed by the end of the day). The reason is severe blood thinning (edema). The rate of appearance of cadaveric spots is also affected by the ambient temperature.

It is impossible to accurately determine the time of death from cadaveric spots - the timing of their appearance and the transition from one stage to another is extremely different, and the duration of each stage is very long. In addition, the assessment of changes in the cadaveric spot when pressing on it is subjective, since the force of pressure cannot be taken into account. To cause the spot to fade at the end of the stasis stage, significant force is required - at least 2 kg/cm2. If the pressure on the area of ​​the spot is not strong enough, it may not fade, which can lead to an incorrect determination of the time of death.

Both in the stage of hypostasis and in the stage of stasis, two phases can be distinguished, characterized by different periods of restoration of the original color of the spot, and these terms largely depend on the time of death (Table 2).

table 2

Dynamics of cadaveric spots (V.E. Loktev, B.A. Fedosyutkin, 1992)

In the first 12-24 hours after death, dynamometry of cadaveric spots can be used to determine the time of death with an accuracy of 2-4 hours. The results obtained must be assessed taking into account the type and cause of death. Dynamometry can also be used to study cadaveric spots that have moved to other areas of the body in the first 14-16 hours from the moment of their formation with an accuracy of determining the timing of death up to 4-6 hours.

Dynamometry of cadaveric spots is undoubtedly of practical importance, but the assessment of the results obtained should be carried out in conjunction with other methods of establishing the duration of death.

Rigor mortis research also allows you to determine the duration of death. Table 3 shows the timing of the onset and resolution of rigor mortis.

Table 3

Dynamics of development of rigor mortis (V.E. Loktev, B.A. Fedosyutkin, 1992)

43.5. Determining the duration of death by studying cadaveric flora and fauna (entomological studies)

At present, the time of appearance and reproduction on the corpse of various types of insects devouring dead tissue has been well studied. The timing of egg laying, their transformation into larvae, pupae and adults is known. These data are used in expert practice to diagnose the time elapsed after death.

Detection of testicles, larvae and pupae of flies. Various types of flies lay their eggs in the nose openings, the corners of the eyes, as well as under the eyelids, in the mouth and in all natural orifices of the body, especially in damp places. The process of development from eggs to adults is determined by the type of fly and conditions (warmth and humidity). Knowing the type of insect and the conditions of its development, one can judge the time that has passed since death.

When determining the time of death, the following approximate calculations are used: fly larvae appear on the corpse approximately 48 hours after death (therefore, the presence of only fly testicles on the corpse indicates that death occurred 24-48 hours ago); after 10-14 days, pupae form from the larvae, after another 12-14 days, the pupae turn into new flies (the flight of flies from the pupae lasts about 2 hours); the presence of empty pupal shells means that the corpse has lain in place for at least 4 weeks. The above calculation is approximate and requires taking into account the specific conditions for the reproduction of insects, mainly the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air. For example, a housefly can complete its entire development cycle at a temperature of +30 C in 10-11 days, but at a temperature of +18 C this period extends to 25-30 days.

Study of the sequence of appearance of various insect species on corpses. There is a certain sequence (alternation) of the appearance of various types of insects on a corpse (buried or unburied). One type is replaced by others. These data can be used to determine the duration of death. In all such cases, it is necessary to conduct a special entomological study.

Study of enzymes and stomach contents. It has now been established that data obtained from the study of enzymes and stomach contents can be used to determine the time of death. But since the length of time food stays in the stomach varies from person to person, it is impossible to make an accurate assessment of this symptom.

It is generally accepted that a well-filled stomach in the presence of undigested food particles indicates that the person ate less than 2 hours before death. If the stomach is empty, then food was not taken for approximately 2 hours before death. The following indicative data are recommended for judging the length of time food remains in the stomach: after a light meal - 1.5 hours; with an average density of lunch - 3; after a heavy meal - 4 hours.

The degree of bladder filling can also help in deciding how long ago the patient died.

Modern forensic medical practice does not yet have research methods that would allow us to answer the question of time of death with sufficient accuracy. In practice, in each specific case, one should make maximum use of the information obtained using a set of methods, and make a subsequent assessment based on the totality of the results. The choice of methods and their number is determined by the expert based on the specific situation and the technical equipment at his disposal.

Some data to determine the time of death, obtained during inspection of the place where the corpse was found. Indications of the time that has passed since death, in addition to those obtained during the examination of the corpse or its parts, can be given by some features of the place where it was found (for example, dry or wet traces of blood on and around the corpse).

In case of poisoning with hydrocyanic acid or potassium cyanide, if it occurs during daylight hours, a large number of dead flies are found on the windowsills in the apartment.

In the spring and summer months, when a corpse is found on grass or cereals, the condition of the plants under and around the corpse should be compared. If the corpse lay in a given place for more than 6-8 days, then the grass located directly under it and deprived of sunlight will turn pale due to the loss of chlorophyll. The development of plants under a corpse is somewhat delayed compared to plants near it. The length of time the corpse remained at the site of its discovery is also indicated by the growth of plant roots through it.

The growth of algae on the surface of the corpse removed from the water indicates that it had been there for about 18-20 days.

Consequently, taking into account some features of the place where the corpse was found, we can also judge the time it spent there. If it is established that the place where the corpse was found is at the same time the place of death of the deceased, then the characteristics of this place can be used to judge the time that has passed since the moment of death. Naturally, in such cases, the time of death must be established based on the totality of all the data obtained during the examination of the corpse. Examination of the scene of the incident will help determine the time that has passed since the death of the subject.

Determining the age of burial. A forensic medical report on the age of burial is extremely important evidence in the investigation of cases involving the discovery of a skeletal corpse.

The data available in the literature indicate that the nature of changes in the bone tissue of buried corpses is determined by the properties of the soil. The severity and timing of the appearance of various signs of bone decomposition, which can be noted during the study, depend on them. The issue of the timing of burial of a corpse based on bone remains can be resolved only by using the entire complex of objective research methods. In this case, an analysis of the morphological and physicochemical properties of the soil in which the corpse was buried is mandatory.

Rational methods for studying bones to determine how long ago a corpse was buried are: direct microscopy, emission spectral analysis, exposure to ultrasound, etc.

Upon visual inspection of exhumed bones a gradual change in their color and the appearance of traces of surface destruction in the form of weathering and defects in the compact layer are noticeable. However, judging the age of a material based on color alone is only possible in a purely approximate manner. The destruction of bone surfaces is a more reliable sign; it is closely related to the qualitative characteristics of the soil. If surface weathering and defects of the compact layer on the bones of corpses buried in leached low-humus thick black soil appear no less than 20 years after burial, then on bones exhumed from soddy-carbonate and dark red forest soil, defects of the compact layer, especially in the area epiphyses of long tubular bones, are diagnosed 15-17 years after burial (the listed soils have high physicochemical activity). Carbonate low-humus chernozems are even less active in this sense than leached chernozems.

It should be especially noted that soft tissues, ligaments and cartilage of corpses buried in leached low-humus thick black soil are completely destroyed 2-3 years after burial.

It has been established that in places where corpses are buried there is an increased content of free forms of phosphoric acid compared to control soil samples. Thus, the presence of a large amount of phosphorus in the soil can serve as an indicator of the burial of a corpse in a given place in the event of its disappearance or the movement of bones.

Direct microscopy method complements visual research and makes it possible to differentiate the time of burial based on the bones of corpses exhumed in the next 15-20 years after burial. The signs of bone decomposition in the soil revealed by this method include a gradual change in color, the appearance of traces of destruction in the form of scarifications, cracks and initial signs of mineralization of the surface of the compact layer of the diaphyses of the femurs. Thus, on bones that were exposed to conditions of leached low-humus thick black soil, the first signs of mineralization are revealed 9-19 years after burial. As the length of time the bones remain in the ground increases, the severity of these signs increases.

Changes in the color of bones, determined by microscopy in reflected light, can also be used in a purely indicative form for the purposes of forensic determination of how long ago a corpse was buried.

Emission spectral analysis method most effective when examining exhumed bones to determine how long ago a corpse was buried. Qualitative and semi-quantitative visual assessment of spectrograms allows, based on the content of a number of elements (manganese, aluminum, silicon, iron, strontium), to differentiate fresh bone tissue from exhumed bones of various dates from the burial of a corpse within 10 years. A relative quantitative characteristic expressing the ratio of elements based on the results of photometry of spectrograms with subsequent statistical processing makes it possible to establish the age of burial of a corpse in the range from 2 to 4 years. Using emission spectral analysis, it is possible to simultaneously record the degree of accumulation of various microelements from the soil by bones.

Duration of bone decalcification decreases as the period of its stay in the ground increases. This fact can be used to determine the age of burial of a corpse based on bone remains by taking into account the time required for this process. Depending on the nature of the soil at comparable burial times, bone decalcification varies. Dark gray forest and soddy-carbonate soils have a more active influence on the process of destruction of the mineral component of bones. Based on the duration of decalcification, it is possible to establish the age of burial of a corpse in leached thick chernozem, in soddy-carbonate soil on marls and in carbonate low-humus chernozem with reliability within 2 years.

To avoid mistakes, the following condition must be observed: conduct a comprehensive study with an analysis of the morphological and physicochemical properties of the environment in which the bones were located.

Introduction

Cadaveric phenomena are changes that the organs and tissues of a corpse undergo after the onset of biological death. Cadaveric phenomena are divided into early and late. The early ones include cooling of the corpse, cadaveric spots, rigor mortis, desiccation and autolysis; to the later ones - rotting, skeletonization, mummification, waxing and peat tanning.

Regardless of the mechanism of biological death, it is always preceded by the moment of clinical death. Depending on the speed of death, agonal death and acute death are distinguished. Agonal death is accompanied by a fairly long terminal period. In acute death, the terminal period is short or practically absent (a typical example of acute death is death due to mechanical asphyxia). The onset of death is always preceded by terminal conditions that influence the nature of postmortem changes.

Early cadaveric phenomena

Early cadaveric phenomena are of great forensic medical importance, as they allow solving a number of important problems for the investigation: determining the time of death, the initial position of the corpse, suggesting poisoning with certain toxic substances, etc. Early cadaveric changes include: cooling of the corpse, formation of cadaveric spots and rigor mortis, partial drying of the corpse, cadaveric autolysis.

Cooling the corpse . Due to the cessation of metabolic processes in the body, the temperature of the corpse gradually decreases to the ambient temperature (air, water, etc.). The degree of cooling depends on a number of factors: ambient temperature (the lower it is, the faster the cooling occurs, and vice versa), the nature of the clothing on the corpse (the warmer it is, the slower the cooling occurs), fatness (in obese people, cooling occurs more slowly than in exhausted), causes of death, etc. Parts of the body not covered by clothing cool faster than those covered. The influence of all these factors on the cooling rate is taken into account approximately.

In the literature there is data on the time required to cool the corpse of an adult to ambient temperature: at a temperature of +20C - approximately 30 hours, at +10C - 40 hours, at +5C - 50 hours. At low temperatures (below -4C), cooling turns to freezing. It is better to measure the temperature of a corpse in the rectum. It is generally accepted that, on average, the temperature in the rectum decreases at room temperature (+16-17C) by about one degree per hour and, therefore, by the end of the day it is compared with the ambient temperature. The temperature of the corpse should be measured after a strictly defined time - at the beginning and at the end of the inspection of the crime scene, and then after the corpse arrives at the morgue (taking into account the ambient temperature). It is better to measure the temperature every two hours.

In the absence of a thermometer, the temperature of a corpse can be judged approximately by touching closed parts of the body (open parts of the body cool faster and do not reflect the temperature of the entire corpse). It is better to do this by feeling the armpits of the corpse with the palm of your hand. The degree of cooling of the corpse is one of the reliable signs of death (body temperature below +25C usually indicates death).

Cadaveric spots. They arise due to post-mortem redistribution of blood in the corpse. After cardiac arrest, the movement of blood through the vessels stops, and due to its gravity, it begins to gradually descend into the relatively lower located parts of the corpse, overflowing and expanding the capillaries and small venous vessels. The latter are visible through the skin in the form of bluish-purple spots, which are called cadaveric spots. The higher located parts of the body do not have cadaveric spots. They appear approximately two hours (sometimes 20-30 minutes) after death.

Against the background of cadaveric spots, it is sometimes possible to distinguish prints of clothing and objects that were under the corpse in the form of lighter areas of skin (places pressed by the weight of the body to various objects look paler on the corpse due to the squeezing of blood from them).

When examining a corpse at the scene and in the morgue, attention is paid to the presence and severity of cadaveric spots, their color and the area they occupy (prevalence), disappearance or change in color when pressed. In young healthy people, cadaveric spots are usually well defined, blue-purple in color, located almost over the entire back and partially on the lateral surfaces of the body. In cases of mechanical asphyxia and other types of rapid death, when the blood remains liquid, the cadaveric spots are abundant, diffuse, and blue-purple in color. With large blood loss, as well as in elderly or exhausted people, cadaveric spots usually develop slowly and are weakly expressed, limited in surface area.

Rigor mortis. After death occurs, biological processes occur in the muscles of the corpse, leading first to relaxation, and then (3-4 hours after death) to their contraction, hardening and rigor. In this state, the muscles of the corpse prevent passive movements in the joints, therefore, physical force must be used to straighten the limbs that are in a state of severe rigor mortis. Full development of rigor mortis in all muscle groups is achieved on average by the end of the day. After 1.5-3 days, rigor disappears (resolves), which is expressed in muscle relaxation.

A certain sequence can be traced in the development of rigor mortis; it follows a descending pattern - first, the masticatory muscles of the face undergo rigor, then the muscles of the neck, chest, abdomen, upper and lower extremities. Rigor mortis is allowed in the reverse order (from bottom to top). However, this scheme is correct only under certain conditions. If rigor mortis is artificially disrupted (for example, by applying force to straighten the upper limbs), then in the first 10-12 hours after death it is able to recover, but to a weaker extent; after this period, rigor mortis does not recover, and the muscles remain in a relaxed state. Such a violation of rigor mortis is possible when moving a corpse, when removing clothes from it and other circumstances. Therefore, when examining a corpse at the scene of an incident, it is necessary not only to establish the presence of rigor mortis, but also to compare the degree of its severity in different muscle groups.

The development of rigor mortis accelerates in conditions of high temperature (after 2-4 hours), and at low temperatures it is delayed (after 10-12 hours). Rigor mortis in the corpses of emaciated individuals occurs very quickly, since the mass of the muscles is small and their rigor requires less time than well-developed muscles. There is a rapid development of the process of rigor mortis when glycogen reserves are depleted. The literature describes cases where rigor mortis developed very quickly, while fixing the position of the corpse at the moment of death. More often, such cases are observed with severe mechanical damage to the medulla oblongata (for example, with a gunshot wound). The so-called cataleptic rigor mortis is also possible, which develops very quickly and also fixes the person’s posture at the moment of death.

The presence and severity of rigor mortis is determined by the tightness or relaxation of muscles, or by checking the possibility of movement in large joints.

Corpse desiccation . After death occurs, the body begins to lose fluid and partially dry out. Drying of the skin and visible mucous membranes becomes noticeable several hours after death. First of all, areas covered with the stratum corneum of the skin or moisturized during life dry out. Relatively quickly (5-6 hours after death), the corneas of open or half-open eyes dry out (they become cloudy, acquire a whitish-yellowish color), the mucous membrane and the border of the lips (dense, wrinkled, brownish-red). Such changes in the mucous membranes and skin are sometimes mistaken for intravital deposits due to injury. If the tip of the tongue protrudes from the mouth, it also becomes dense and brown.

Areas of intravital and postmortem deposits (obtained during transportation of a corpse, providing assistance to a victim, etc.) also quickly dry out and have a brownish with a red tint or a “waxy” color. They are called "parchment spots." To establish the intravital or postmortem origin of such “spots,” it is necessary to examine them microscopically. Often, in the first time after death, the affected areas of the skin may not be noticeable. As they dry, they acquire their characteristic appearance. The detection of “parchment spots” of intravital origin may indicate the nature and location of the application of force during mechanical injuries, and, in combination with other data, the nature of violence (for example, compression of the neck with hands during strangulation, damage to the genital area during rape, trauma to the anterolateral surfaces chest as a result of artificial respiration performed on the victim, etc.).

The skin and mucous membranes of newborns, children and the elderly dry out especially quickly. Signs of cadaveric desiccation are used during an external examination of a corpse to ascertain death, when resolving questions about the time of its occurrence, about the intravital or postmortem origin of damage to the skin.

Cadaveric self-digestion (autolysis) ). With the onset of death, the tissues of the corpse undergo self-digestion under the influence of enzymes, especially tissues and organs rich in enzymes: pancreas, adrenal glands, liver, etc. Internal organs, under the influence of autolysis, become dull, become flabby, and are saturated with red-colored blood plasma. The mucous membrane of the stomach, under the influence of digestive juices, undergoes rapid self-digestion.

In infants, such self-digestion can lead to the destruction of the stomach wall and the release of its contents into the abdominal cavity. Sometimes the phenomena of autolysis in the gastrointestinal tract are mistakenly mistaken for the action of destructive poisons (acids, alkalis, etc.).

Conclusion

For a relatively short period of time after death, some physiological processes remain in the corpse: hair and nails continue to grow, the viability of some tissues and organs, blood and bone marrow cells, sperm activity, etc. are preserved. The phenomenon of tissues retaining certain physiological properties is one of the prerequisites for posthumous procurement of blood, corneas, skin, bones, individual internal organs for the purpose of their subsequent transplantation to a living person.

The physiological reactions of the tissues of a dead body have a completely natural tendency to gradually fade, which makes it possible to use these reactions for forensic purposes to determine the duration of death.

List of sources used:

1. Pashinyan G.A., Kharin G.M., Forensic medicine, 2001.

2. Pigolkin I.Yu. Forensic medicine, 2012

3. Samishchenko S.S. Forensic medicine, 1998

After the cessation of cardiac activity, blood and lymph, due to their gravity, begin to gradually descend through the blood and lymphatic vessels into the underlying parts of the corpse. The blood accumulated in these sections passively dilates the venous blood vessels and shines through the skin, forming cadaveric spots.

The localization of cadaveric spots depends on the position of the body of the corpse. They form on the back and posterolateral surfaces of the neck, chest, lower back and limbs when the body is positioned on the back. If lying on the stomach, then cadaveric spots appear on the face, the anterior surface of the chest and abdomen. When hanging, cadaveric spots are found on the limbs (forearms and hands, legs and feet), lower back and abdomen. The areas of the skin of a corpse, pressed by the weight of the body to the planes on which the corpse lies, have a grayish-white color, since the skin vessels in these areas are compressed, there is no blood in them and there are no conditions for the formation of cadaveric spots. This is most often observed in the area of ​​the back of the head, shoulder blades, buttocks, and on the back of the thighs and legs. On cadaveric stains you can see negative imprints of clothing and objects found under the corpse. Thus, the position of the corpse, if it has not changed, predetermines the localization of cadaveric spots.

The severity of cadaveric spots depends on many reasons. Abundant, diffuse cadaveric spots occur, for example, with mechanical asphyxia, in which a liquid state of the blood is observed and the plethora of the internal organs is sharply expressed. With prolonged agony, the formation of red and white bundles occurs, which creates an obstacle to the rapid formation of cadaveric spots. If death was preceded by blood loss, cadaveric spots usually develop slowly and are poorly expressed.

The color of cadaveric spots has important diagnostic value. In carbon monoxide poisoning, carboxyhemoglobin is formed, which gives the blood a bright red color, and cadaveric spots accordingly acquire a pronounced reddish-pink hue. In case of poisoning with poisons that cause the formation of methemoglobin (Berthollet salt, nitrites, etc.), cadaveric spots have a grayish-brown tint.

There is a certain pattern in the process of formation of cadaveric spots. It is customary to note three stages in their development: hypostasis, diffusion (or stasis), imbibition.

Stage hypostasis- the initial period of the formation of cadaveric spots, which is caused by the movement of blood into the underlying parts of the corpse. Cadaveric spots at this stage usually appear in the first 2-4 hours after death, sometimes they form later, for example, with heavy blood loss. In the stage of hypostasis, the color of cadaveric spots completely disappears when pressed, as the blood moves from the vessels. A few seconds or a minute after the pressure stops, their original color is restored. When the position of the body changes, the cadaveric spots in the hypostasis stage are completely moved to the underlying sections in accordance with the new position of the corpse.

The second stage of cadaveric spots - diffusion- usually forms within 12-15 hours after death. During this period, lymph and intercellular fluid gradually diffuse through the walls of blood vessels into them, dilute the blood plasma, promoting hemolysis of red blood cells. The liquid part of the blood also diffuses through the wall of blood vessels and permeates the surrounding tissues. Cadaveric spots during this period do not disappear when pressed, but turn pale and slowly restore their original color. When the position of the body changes, cadaveric spots in the diffusion stage can partially move and appear on new underlying areas of the body. Previously formed cadaveric spots remain, but their color becomes somewhat paler.

The third stage of cadaveric spots is hypostatic imbibition, begins to develop towards the end of the day after death, continuing to increase in the following hours. A fluid consisting of lymph, intercellular fluid and plasma leaked from blood vessels permeates the skin. Cadaveric spots at this stage do not disappear and do not turn pale when pressed, but retain their original color; cadaveric spots do not move when the position of the corpse changes.

The change in the nature of cadaveric spots when pressed serves as a guiding sign for experts to establish the duration of death and should be taken into account in conjunction with other data. Typically, pressure is carried out with a specially designed dynamometer, which allows strictly dosed pressure to be applied to the area of ​​the cadaveric spot. The dynamometry results are compared with the data presented in special tables.

In some cases, expert errors may be made when examining cadaveric spots. Under a tight scarf, tie, etc., cadaveric spots do not form, therefore, light stripes formed against the background of cadaveric spots, for example from a collar, can be mistaken for a strangulation groove, which is one of the main signs indicating death from mechanical asphyxia when the neck is compressed loop. Bruises located outside the areas of cadaveric spots are usually easy to recognize. Diagnosis of bruises located on the border of cadaveric spots, and even more so in their zone, presents significant difficulties. Upon careful examination of the bruise, you can see some of its convexity above the general surface, the delineation of the edges and sometimes its shape. Unlike cadaveric spots, the color of bruises does not change when pressed. It is always recommended to make cross-shaped incisions in the area of ​​tissue in which bruising is suspected. In the presence of bruises, as a rule, a hematoma or an area of ​​tissue soaked in blood occupying a limited area is clearly visible, which is absent in cadaveric spots. If necessary, a suspicious area of ​​skin along with subcutaneous tissue is cut out and subjected to microscopic examination. On microscopic preparations of a bruise, loose, densely infiltrating tissue of the reticular layer of the skin and subcutaneous tissue is clearly visible. To objectively determine the presence of bruises against the background of cadaveric spots, putrefactive changes and mummified corpses, a method is proposed, which is based on soaking the area of ​​skin in which the presence of a bruise is suspected in running water, followed by treating it with an acetic-alcohol solution or. In this case, the existing bruises are contoured and acquire a brownish color, with various shades, against the background of yellow-grayish intact skin.

Simultaneously with the appearance of cadaveric spots in the skin, the formation of so-called cadaveric hypostases occurs in the internal organs. In this case, blood accumulates in the underlying parts of the internal organs, which gives them a reddish-bluish color.

If the corpse lies on its back, then the posterior sections of the lungs acquire a pronounced bluish tint, different from other parts of the lung tissue, and some compactness, which is a consequence of cadaveric hypostases. This condition of the lungs can be mistaken for pneumonia. Hypostases in intestinal loops can be regarded as an inflammatory process. A thorough examination of internal organs, as a rule, helps to avoid such errors, and the results of histological studies completely exclude them.

Thus, the presence of cadaveric spots, being a reliable sign of death, serves as one of the sources for resolving the issue of how long ago death was, indicates a change in the initial position of the corpse (before examining it at the place of discovery), and provides guidance in the diagnosis of certain causes of death.

Cadaveric spots

Cadaveric spots.

Corpse spots(hypostatici, livores cadaverici, vibices) are perhaps the most famous sign of the onset of biological death. They belong to early cadaveric phenomena, and are, as a rule, areas of skin of a bluish-violet color. Cadaveric spots arise due to the fact that after the cessation of cardiac activity and loss of tone of the vascular wall, passive movement of blood occurs through the vessels under the influence of gravity and its concentration in the underlying areas of the body.

Time of occurrence

The first cadaveric spots appear after 1-2 hours in case of acute death, in agonal death - 3-4 hours after the onset of biological death, in the form of pale areas of skin coloring. Corpse spots reach their maximum color intensity by the end of the first half of the day. During the first 10-12 hours, there is a slow redistribution of blood in the corpse under the influence of gravity. Cadaveric spots can be mistaken for bruises, and vice versa. An incision protects against such an error: in case of bruising, coagulated blood appears, but if staining occurs only from hypostasis, then, depending on the time elapsed after death, they find either only simple hyperemia, or saturation of the corresponding tissues with blood serum.

Characteristic color

Since cadaveric spots are blood visible through soft tissues and skin, the color of cadaveric spots depends on the cause of death.

• In asphyxial death, cadaveric spots have an intense bluish-violet color, like all the blood of a corpse, supersaturated with carbon dioxide.
• In carbon monoxide poisoning, carboxyhemoglobin is formed, which gives the blood a bright red color, and cadaveric spots acquire a distinct reddish-pink tint. They acquire the same color for a while if a corpse is transferred from a warm room to a cold one or vice versa.
• In case of cyanide poisoning, cadaveric spots have a cherry color.
• In cases of death from hypothermia and drowning in water, cadaveric spots with a pinkish-red tint.
• In cases of poisoning with methemoglobin-forming poisons (nitrates, nitrites, Berthollet salt, methylene blue and others) and at certain stages of decay, cadaveric spots have a gray-brownish tint.
• In case of death from massive blood loss, 60-70% of blood is lost during life, cadaveric spots are weakly expressed, never cover the entire lower surface of the corpse, have the appearance of islands delimited from each other, are pale, and appear at a later date.

Stages of development

In agonal death, the timing of the appearance and intensity of coloring of cadaveric spots are determined by the duration of the terminal period. The longer the terminal period, the later the cadaveric spots appear and have a paler color. This phenomenon is due to the fact that during agonal death the blood in the corpse is in a state of varying degrees of coagulation, while during acute death the blood is liquid. In the development of cadaveric spots, depending on the timing of occurrence, three phases are distinguished.

1. Hypostasis stage- is the initial stage of development of a cadaveric spot, begins immediately after the cessation of active blood circulation and ends after 12 - 14 hours. At this stage, cadaveric spots disappear when pressed. When the position of the corpse changes (turns over), the spots can completely move to the underlying sections.
2. Stage of stasis or diffusion- cadaveric spots begin to transform into it approximately 12 hours after the onset of biological death. At this stage, gradual thickening of the blood in the vessels occurs due to the diffusion of plasma through the vascular wall into the surrounding tissue. In this regard, when pressed, the cadaveric spot turns pale, but does not completely disappear, and after some time it restores its color. When the corpse's position changes (turns over), the spots may partially move to the underlying sections.
3. Stage of hemolysis or imbibition- develops approximately 48 hours after the moment of biological death. When pressing on the cadaveric spot, there is no change in color, and when turning the corpse over, there is no change in localization. In the future, cadaveric spots do not undergo any transformations other than putrefactive changes.

Meaning and methods of assessment

• cadaveric spots are a reliable, earliest sign of death;
• they reflect the position of the body and its possible changes after death;
• allow you to approximately determine the time of death;
• the degree of severity reflects the speed of death;
• the color of cadaveric spots serves as a diagnostic sign for some poisonings or may indicate the conditions in which the corpse was located;
• they allow us to talk about the nature of the objects on which the corpse was located (brushwood, folds of linen, etc.).

Significance in ascertaining the fact of the occurrence of biological death

The forensic medical significance of cadaveric spots lies not only in the fact that they can be used to determine the duration of death. Their main significance is that they are a reliable sign of death: none of the intravital processes can imitate cadaveric spots. The appearance of cadaveric spots indicates that the heart stopped working at least 1 - 1.5 hours ago, and, as a result, irreversible changes have already occurred in the brain as a result of hypoxia.

Significance in determining the duration of death

The nature of the change in the cadaveric spot when pressed allows forensic experts to roughly establish the duration of death. When analyzing the behavior of a cadaveric spot, it is necessary to take into account the cause of death, the rate of its onset (acute or agonal), and the research methodology. Fairly approximate results can be obtained by applying finger pressure on the spot, so standard methods with a dosed area and pressure force have been developed. Pressure is carried out using a standard calibrated dynamometer. The author of the method, V.I. Kononenko, based on the research conducted, proposed tables for determining the duration of death based on the results of dynamometry of cadaveric spots. The error of the method, according to the author, is within ±2 - ±4 hours. The lack of indication of the confidence interval of the error is a significant drawback of the technique, which reduces its significance for practical application.

In folklore

• From the protocol from the scene of the incident: “Corpse spots the size of 10 and 20 kopeck coins were found on the murdered person, with a total area of ​​three rubles and twenty kopecks.”
• From a letter to Kashpirovsky: “Dear doctor, after your sessions, my cadaveric spots disappeared and the suture from the autopsy dissolved.”

Notes

Links

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Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron Wikipedia