Psychological diagnosis. Types of diagnoses according to L.S. Vygotsky. Psychological diagnosis: principles and levels of construction Mental diagnosis and its types

Psychological diagnosis– this is the final result of a psychologist’s activity, aimed at describing and identifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person in order to assess their current state, further development and development of recommendations determined by the purpose of the study. Subject of psychological diagnosis– establishment of individual psychological differences in normal and pathological conditions. The most important element of psychological diagnosis is the clarification in each individual case of why a given manifestation is found in the behavior of the subject, what are their causes and consequences.

L.S. Vygotsky identifies 3 main levels of diagnostics.

1. symptomatic diagnosis is limited to stating certain features or symptoms, and on the basis of which practical conclusions are directly drawn. Such a diagnosis is not strictly scientific, because establishing symptoms does not lead to a diagnosis. At this level, the work of a psychologist can be completely replaced by machine data processing.

2. etiological diagnosis takes into account not only the presence of certain features or symptoms, but also the reasons for their occurrence.

3. typological diagnosis consists in determining the place and meaning of the data obtained in the holistic picture of the individual. According to Vygotsky, diagnosis should always take into account the complex structure of personality. “Diagnostics” and “diagnosis” are related as a process to a result.

Main criteria for the quality of psychological diagnosis:

1) adequacy– correspondence of the diagnosis to the actual condition of the subject. 2) timeliness– speed and efficiency of diagnosis. 3) communication value– the possibility of transmitting psychodiagnostic information to the applicant (as a rule, who is not a specialist in the field of psychology) for the purposes of prevention, correction and professional training of the subject. 4). Labor intensity– level of professional training of the diagnostician. Availability of psychodiagnostic tools at his disposal, features of a particular case.

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPRISONMENT.

Psychodiagnostic report is a document about the diagnostic results prepared by a psychologist. It is necessary to distinguish between a psychological conclusion: 1) a summary of the client’s condition drawn up in the language of modern psychological science. 2) a report about the subject, as a document similar in content, but different in form, intended for a non-specialist.

The main functions of a psychological report:

1) assessment of the current state of the survey object. 2) forecasting the future state of the object being examined; 3) developing recommendations that should depend on the objectives of the examination (i.e., be specific and follow from the diagnostics performed).

The conclusion must be based on all data available to the researcher, taking into account the basic ethical standards of psychology and psychodiagnostics. There is no standard form or rules for writing conclusions. It varies depending on the purpose, the situation in which the diagnosis is being carried out, the addressee, theoretical guidelines and the specialization of the psychologist. IN the structure of the psychological lesson It is advisable to allocate 3 blocks: 1) phenomenological: description of complaints, symptoms, behavioral characteristics of the subject, his attitude to the fact of the examination and request (i.e., what the subject expects). 2) causal: includes data on individual areas of the subject’s personality, and also formulates the main diagnostic conclusions. 3) block of proposed activities that need to be taken in connection with a particular psychological diagnosis (recommendations).

The main requirement for preparing a conclusion– its compliance with the purpose of the order and the level of preparation of the customer to receive this type of information. The psychologist's statements must reflect the degree of authenticity of each of the factors or conclusions involved. When preparing a conclusion for a non-specialist, special psychological terminology should be avoided. Also, in the conclusion, it is better to indicate those characteristics that are of a fairly high or low level, and not closer to the average level.

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A psychological diagnosis is not a conclusion about a mental illness or a predisposition to a particular mental illness.

A psychological diagnosis is the final result of a psychological examination to clarify and describe the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person in order to assess his current state, predict further development and develop recommendations arising from the objectives of the examination.

Psychological diagnosis is the final result of a psychologist’s activity, aimed at identifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person with the aim of:

Assessments of their current state,

Forecast of further development,

2. information exchange function

3. Statistical data collection function (allows you to see trends in the appearance, development, reduction or increase in the number of children with disabilities, etc.). Enables planning of future assistance activities

4. function related to scientific research Types: - symptomatic (diagnostic conclusion based on a symptom) - syndromic - nosological (medical diagnosis. Includes information about etiology)

Psychological diagnoses: -phenomenological diagnosis (judgment of what ego state a person is in by how he relives the events of his past)

Typological diagnosis (allows you to determine the personality of the subject to a certain type. In special psychology, a diagnosis is used that is based on the typology of dysontogenesis)

Functional diagnosis (based on the nosological diagnosis, but not limited to it. Includes a socio-psychological context. Focused on quality care and based on an integrated interdisciplinary approach.

The introduction of PMPK into the work creates the prerequisites for an interested exchange of information and increasing the efficiency of cooperation among commission members).

Korobeinikov identifies 3 levels of FD:

1. Clinical and psychopathological level

a. Assessment of real pathogenic factors in the formation of the cognitive and behavioral sphere of personality

b. Gives qualification and differentiation of affective disorders as disorders of the primary or secondary levels

c. Determination of leading and accompanying symptoms in the context of disorders of socio-psychological adaptation of the individual

2. Clinical and psychological:

a. Differential diagnosis of mild forms of mental development disorders based on pathopsychological and psychometric criteria

b. Clarification of the genesis of disorders of the cognitive and emotional-volitional sphere based on the analysis of expert psychological data and features of the social situation of the child’s development

c. Establishment of qualitative features of mental activity both in operational and motivational characteristics

d. Obtaining a psychometric assessment of the level of intellectual development and the structure of the intelligence profile

e. Assessment of the quality of socio-psychological adaptation of the individual and the probable mechanisms of its violations in the context of a specific case

3. Psychological and pedagogical level:

a. Determining the form of manifestation of school maladjustment

b. Reasons for school maladjustment

c. The nature and severity of difficulties in mastering the curriculum

d. Determining the scope of conflict behavior and the nature of typical forms of affective response

e. Assessing the effectiveness of corrective techniques

The practice of using various psychodiagnostic tests (methods) to study personality is inextricably linked with the concept "psychological diagnosis".

The concept of “diagnosis” (recognition) is widely used in various fields of science and technology, because the task of recognition, determining the essence and characteristics of certain phenomena is not considered the prerogative of medicine.

In the literature you can find many definitions of the concept of “psychological diagnosis”. Medical understanding diagnosis, firmly connecting it with a disease, a deviation from the norm, was also reflected in the definition of this concept in psychological science. In this understanding, psychological diagnosis- this is always the identification of the hidden cause of the discovered trouble. Also, some foreign psychologists proposed using the term “diagnosis” in psychology exclusively to “name” any disorders or disorders (Rosenzweig, 1949, etc.).

Such views lead to an undue narrowing of the scope of psychological diagnosis; everything that is associated with identifying and taking into account individual psychological differences in the norm falls out of it. The most extensive, historically established area of ​​research is arbitrarily pulled out of psychological diagnostics.

The concept of diagnosis is key in diagnosis. Its essence reveals the specifics of diagnostics as a special sphere of human activity, aimed at studying not only the external, but also the internal (cause-and-effect) essence of an object, recognizing a particular concrete phenomenon on the basis of abstract knowledge about the general necessary and essential. A diagnosis is a special type of knowledge, since it reflects a specialist’s ideas about the characteristics of the condition and functioning of a particular person.

The area of ​​psychological diagnosis is individual psychological differences, both in normal and pathological conditions.

A psychological diagnosis is the final result of a psychologist’s activity to clarify the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person, assess their current state and predict further development. As a rule, a psychological diagnosis takes the form of a structured description of a complex of interrelated mental properties of a person - abilities, style traits (temperament and character), motivational characteristics - with an explanation of the identified contradictions and determination of the meaning of the data obtained in a holistic dynamic picture of the personality.

The subject of psychological diagnosis is the establishment of individual psychological differences in normal and pathological conditions. The most important element of a psychological diagnosis is to clarify in each individual case why these manifestations are found in the behavior of the subject, what their causes and consequences are. As psychological knowledge becomes more enriched, the “etiological” element in a psychological diagnosis will probably not be as significant as it is at present, at least in current, practical work. Today, as a rule, having established certain individual psychological characteristics by means of psychodiagnostics, the researcher is deprived of the opportunity to indicate their causes and place in the personality structure.

Depending on the tasks and the corresponding breadth and psychodiagnostic research, we can distinguish three steps or level of development diagnosis, which in general terms were first described by Russian psychologists A. A. Nevsky and L. S. Vygotsky (1936) and represent successively deepening stages of cognition.

Symptomatic(or empirical) diagnosis, limited to the statement of certain features or symptoms, on the basis of which practical conclusions are directly drawn. Such a diagnosis has the right to exist as a working, indicative moment in the study, since it does not reveal the causes and prospects for the development of the detected phenomena; and in practice it is used to solve selection problems: screening, selection, differentiation of individuals on some basis - for example, to select individuals with a high level of suggestibility into psychotherapeutic groups using imperative suggestion.

Etiological diagnosis, taking into account not only certain symptoms, but also the reasons that cause them. Here the diagnostician must answer questions about how it developed, through what mechanism it arose, and what causes the identified symptom or complex of psychological characteristics.

Highest level - typological diagnosis, which consists in determining the place and meaning of the data obtained in a holistic, dynamic picture of the individual. According to L. S. Vygotsky, not every study can be considered diagnostic. The latter presupposes a ready-made, established system of concepts, with the help of which the diagnosis itself is determined, and a particular phenomenon is subsumed under a general concept. It also very accurately characterizes the sometimes overlooked differences that exist today between psychological measurement and psychological diagnosis. “The psychological dimension refers to the area of ​​identifying a symptom; diagnosis refers to the final judgment about the phenomenon as a whole, revealing itself in these symptoms, not directly perceptible and assessed on the basis of the study, comparison and interpretation of these symptoms” (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 313) .

According to L. S. Vygotsky, the diagnosis should always take into account the complex structure of the personality. The diagnosis is inextricably linked with the prognosis. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the content of the prognosis and diagnosis coincide, but the prognosis is based on the ability to understand “the internal logic of the self-movement of the development process so much that, on the basis of the past and present, it outlines the path of development.” It is recommended to divide the forecast into separate periods and resort to long-term repeated observations. It takes into account the close interconnection of individual substructures of the psyche, its multi-level functional systems working together, implying that any external signs cannot be isolated and limited to the characteristics of individual mental functions.

The system-forming unit of a typological diagnosis is a psychological syndrome - a stable set of signs and symptoms corresponding to the same phenomenon, united by a common cause. Each psychological syndrome is distinguished by a unique set of specific symptoms that appear in a certain sequence, have a hierarchical structure and an external form of manifestation. The signs included in the structure of the syndrome can be eclectically combined with other symptoms, leading to its complication or change. It is possible to combine “small” syndromes into “large” ones, which have high typological specificity and correlate specific symptom complexes with certain psychological phenomena. This diagnosis is based on phenomenological typologies, and diagnostic categories are formed according to external characteristics: from constitutional and portrait to behavioral and activity.

The diagnosis and prognosis must take into account not only the personality characteristics that have found their place in the theoretical model. An analysis of environmental conditions and the specificity of a particular situation is necessary. It is impossible to determine, for example, suitability for a particular activity without the requirements for it. The characterization of personality traits outside of social conditions is devoid of foundation and “hangs in the air.” “We can understand what a “lazy boy” is if we know who exactly, in what social conditions, to whom and on what grounds gave such a definition” (Obukhovsky, 1981).

N. Sandberg and L. Tyler (Sandberg and Tyler, 1962) identify three levels of diagnostic conclusions, which coincide in essence with the levels of diagnosis in L. S. Vygotsky.

One of the most developed theoretical schemes of psychological diagnosis remain today, proposed by the famous Polish psychologistJanusz Reikowski (Reykowski, 1966), who identifies four main directions in the work of a psychodiagnostician:

Carrying out a diagnosis of activity, behavior, i.e. description, analysis and characterization of the characteristics of the behavior of the subject.

Carrying out a diagnosis of activity regulation processes or studying the mental processes through which activity is carried out.

Carrying out a diagnosis of regulatory mechanisms, mechanisms of mental processes on which their course depends - diagnostics of systems of nervous connections.

Diagnosis of the genesis of regulatory mechanisms or the answer to the question of how and under what conditions the psyche of a given individual was formed.

Activity is understood as a process aimed at a specific result.

When diagnosing activity, Reikowski suggests distinguishing between its two most general aspects: instrumental (quality, speed and adequacy of actions) and relationship aspect , i.e. those characteristics that express the subject’s attitude to the actions he performs, to the environment and to himself.

The task of psychological diagnosis is not only to identify which actions are going wrong, but also what actions the individual can be successful in.

To obtain systematized characteristics of activity, it is proposed to use a system of main roles performed by a person in society.

Reikovsky notes that in clinical diagnostics, the relational aspect is most often taken into account, and in professional diagnostics, taking into account the instrumental aspect is of greatest value. In order to answer the question of why actions are not proceeding correctly, a diagnosis of regulatory processes is necessary.

In the diagnosis of regulation processes, Reikowski also conventionally distinguishes two classes of phenomena: processes of the instrumental type and processes of the relational type.

TO processes such as instrumental There are three groups of regulatory processes, each of which performs its own function: orientational, intellectual and executive. Diagnosis of orientation processes includes an assessment of the adequacy of perception, the ability to comprehend phenomena and form concepts. Smart Features determine the creation of activity programs, their diagnosis is associated with assessing the effectiveness of planning and problem solving. TO executive functions include psychomotor and verbal reactions.

Under relationship type processes Reikowski understands emotional and motivational processes. At diagnostics of emotional processes determine the degree of correspondence between the characteristics of the situation and the characteristics of emotional reactions in terms of duration, strength, sign and content of emotions. Diagnosis of motivational processes- this is an assessment of the type and intensity of motives that prompt an individual to act.

Regulatory processes are carried out thanks to complex systems of neural connections (dynamic stereotypes) developed throughout a person’s life. These regulatory mechanisms ensure stability and organization of human behavior. To describe the mechanisms of regulation, the author proposes to distinguish two classes of dynamic schemes : operational (systems of skills, abilities, knowledge) and dynamic (personal manifestations). Personality characterized by Reikowski as a special system through which human behavior acquires constancy, specificity and orientation towards certain goals. The purpose of a personality diagnosis is not only to determine the sources of pathology, but also the areas of effective functioning.

In diagnosing the genesis of regulatory mechanisms, Reikovsky pays special attention to the study "history of didactic processes" individual, important for the analysis of acquired knowledge and skills, and also recommends carefully studying the “history of educational processes”, in which systems of expectations, needs and relationships are formed. When analyzing the “history of didactic processes,” one should rely on the chronology of education, and ordering the “history of educational influences” is possible during a detailed anamnestic interview.

According to the method of justification In modern psychological literature, clinical and statistical psychological diagnoses are distinguished. They are based on the specifics and decision-making criteria. In the first case, the diagnosis is based on identifying the qualitative side of the individual’s psychological functioning in the personological aspect, which constitutes its specificity. In the second, it is based on a quantitative assessment of the level of development or formation of the parameters of a specific psychological sphere (high - low level, meets - does not meet the requirements).

According to the nature of the psychological examination There are implicit and rational psychological diagnoses. Implicit A psychological diagnosis is often defined as an intuitive, unconsciously obtained conclusion (conclusion) about the state of the mental system, which determines the characteristics of human behavior and activity. The recognition process occurs on the basis of an unconscious analysis of one’s own impressions and external signs. According to V. Cherny, such “intuitive diagnostics” is inherent in every person, since behind it lies a personal idea, formed in individual experience, of how external data, contextual conditions and people’s behavior are combined with each other in typical cases. However, such implicit diagnosis also has a downside. Considering that the perceptual-cognitive sphere of a specialist usually undergoes the greatest transformation, standards and professional cliches often appear in the structure of his professional consciousness, predetermining the attitude towards a person (student), goals, character and tactics of interaction with him.

In the field of teaching, such professional stereotypes, firmly established in the minds of teachers, are well described. They often manifest themselves in so-called label diagnoses. Today the most popular of them are: “lazy”, “loser”, “indomitable”, “difficult”, “incapable”, “problematic”, “aggressive”, “inhibited”, etc. Most often, such “diagnoses” are not based on specific facts and objectively observed phenomena, but on the teacher’s subjective assessments of the student’s behavior and performance. With rare exceptions, motivational and other characteristics of the individual’s inner world remain unknown. The consequence of such stereotyping is a decrease in the adequacy of social pedagogical perception and the construction of an implicit diagnosis not at the level of intuition and ordinary psychology, but at the level of professional consciousness, which has a direct impact on the educational process.

Rational diagnosis- this is a scientifically based conclusion, often independent of the specialist’s previous experience and his theoretical preferences, which is based on precisely established and empirically confirmed diagnostic data. Rational diagnostics are based only on reproducible facts.

According to the method of logical construction exist:

1. Direct substantiated psychological diagnosis when there is a set of symptoms or a combination of diagnostic signs characteristic of a specific psychological phenomenon.

For example, reduced learning ability is characterized by specific features of the cognition process, manifested at the perceptual and mental levels: a utilitarian attitude to cognitive tasks, superficiality, disunity of acquired knowledge, inability to independently master rational methods of action and weak pliability of their correction. And for communicative incompetence characterized by the inability to listen, establish psychological contact with others, express one’s feelings or one’s position in dialogue, recognize non-verbal signals of a communication partner, participate in teamwork, etc.

2. Indirect diagnosis, obtained by excluding less probable features or highlighting the most probable of them.

3. Diagnosis based on exposure results (catamnesis) when the diagnosis is established conditionally, on the basis of a favorable result of providing psychological assistance in a given specific diagnostic situation.

A.F. Anufriev, based on an analysis of the literature devoted to the diagnosis, gives the following understanding. A psychological diagnosis is the result of a specialist’s psychodiagnostic activity. In a brief, succinct form it means: (1) the current state of the mental system or its individual indicators, (2) determining the characteristics of the behavior and activity of a particular person, (3) presented in the form of a diagnostic category (concept) or statement (inference), (4 ) on the basis of which it is possible to predict further development (future state) and (5) formulate recommendations.

A.F. Anufriev points out that a specific description of the stage of the psychodiagnostic process is psychodiagnosticogram, containing an algorithm for testing diagnostic hypotheses, indicating methodological techniques and assessment tools and creating the necessary conditions for the implementation of each stage of the diagnostic process. The use of psychodiagnosticograms in establishing a diagnosis makes it possible to increase its effectiveness by reducing the psychodiagnostic procedure and the accuracy of diagnosis.

In order to create a diagnostic diagram, you can follow following diagram 27:

Characterize features of mental processes, implementing activities and behavior. In this case, diagnostics should be directed to cognitive(adequacy of perception, ability to comprehend information; success in planning activities and making decisions), affective(direction, content, strength and duration of emotions and emotional states in certain situations) and conative(psychomotor and verbal reactions as executive functions; content and strength of motivational, stimulating processes) spheres mental activity. Modern diagnostics has a rich arsenal of various reliable methods for diagnosing cognitive mental processes, emotional and motivational characteristics, as well as the psychomotor sphere. In this case, methods of objective, subjective and projective approaches can be applied.

Reveal mechanisms of regulation of mental processes and their genesis at the individual (neurodynamic characteristics) and personal (focus on specific goals) level. Regulatory processes are carried out thanks to complex systems of neural connections (dynamic stereotypes) developed throughout a person’s life. These dynamic stereotypes or stable chains of neural connections appearVsystem of skills - abilities - knowledge conditioned by the history of training, and inpersonality structure, conditioned by the history of upbringing, shaping the needs, expectations and relationships of a person.

As a result training and education on an individual basis ( energy potential, properties of the nervous system and related functionality) style features are formed ( temperament or character manifest themselves in the style of behavior in general or in socially typical situations), capabilities And focus personality. Diagnostics of these characteristics can also be implemented by various methodological means. However, a special place among them should be occupied by the biographical research method and the genetic method of interpreting diagnostic data.

Reveal how manifest themselves in human behavior and activitiesdetected characteristics. It is known that the characteristics being diagnosed may not be manifested or may manifest themselves differently in behavior and activities. At the same time, one should evaluate quality, speed and adequacy of actions, and attitudea person to the actions he performs, to the environment and to himself. In this case, you can use objective and semantic methods or the method of expert judges and conversations.

Typological diagnostics in combination with an ideographic approach 28. At the final stage of diagnosis, a working model of the case being studied is created, in which specific peculiarities people presented in integrity and formulated in terms that allow accurate and reasonable reveal the psychological essence of the phenomenon, its structure. According to the diagnosis theory of L.S. Vygotsky “the whole variety of individual situations can be reduced to a certain number of typical situations...”. However, it should be remembered that the same property manifests itself differently in behavior depending on the situation and attitude towards it - personality construct systems. When analyzing “specific situations in which a certain trait can be detected, one should use information about how this trait is perceived by the person himself, what place it occupies in his subjective hierarchy of personality traits, in which cases he considers it necessary to demonstrate this trait.... Thus Thus,...one can with a certain probability expect its manifestation in many or in some situations.”

The personality structure is both individual-psychological and socio-psychological. The social environment determines the diversity of behavioral manifestations and psychological properties or personality traits should be understood as generalized dispositions (predispositions) or “flexible readiness to act in a certain way. They internally interact with each other and the situation, without predetermining individual actions, but revealing a relatively stable general type of behavior, internal dispositional consistency."

Therefore, diagnosis and prognosis should take into account not only personality traits, but also the specifics of a specific situation and environmental conditions at the present moment and in the process of development. The variety of behavioral manifestations of personality traits can only be specified by analyzing the social situations in which the individual acts and lives.

The formulation of a psychological conclusion, its writing or oral presentation is a complex analytical and synthetic process, during which the diagnostic psychologist must note the results of the study. Despite the fact that there is no generally accepted form of psychological conclusion among psychologists, some recommendations for writing one can be given.

Despite the fact that, in principle, a specialist has freedom to choose the form and procedure for drawing up a psychodiagnostic conclusion, nevertheless, there are certain principles of its compilation:

a) the psychodiagnostic conclusion summarizes the data of the psychodiagnostic procedure, but not the results themselves, but their psychological interpretation and conclusions;

b) the conclusion reflected in the psychodiagnostic conclusion is clear and specific answer to the question posed to the specialist. For the field of education, this may be a designation of the psychological reasons for the failure or indiscipline of students: what is the reason for restlessness or inattention, as well as specific recommendations for eliminating them;

c) the content of the diagnostic conclusion should reflect only the most significant regarding the request psychological reasons or phenomena that can be explained and supplemented based on the need to clarify and better understand the essence of the phenomenon being studied. In this case, in conclusion, a description of the psychological characteristics of the individual is included, emphasizing individual originality a specific person;

d) in form, a diagnostic conclusion can be presented in the form of both explanatory concepts and judgments or inferences. In each case, the terms used should be clarified by referring them to the appropriate theory, for example “introverted type according to Eysenck” or “introverted type according to Rorschach”, “unsatisfied need for security according to A. Maslow” or “unsatisfied need for love according to K. Horney ";

e) in case of detection of various types of deviations (changes, deficits, delays), the conclusion indicates the intact aspects or possible compensatory mechanisms of the personality;

f) the text of the diagnostic report should not be overloaded with technical details of obtaining and processing data. The most important are: a) phenomenology of identified psychological characteristics and deviations; b) its explanation regarding the formulated request and the purpose of the diagnostic study; c) the possibility of taking into account the identified features in subsequent activities and behavior.

The conclusion based on the results of a psychodiagnostic examination must contain a number of information important for determining the state of mental development of the subject, including:

1. Information about the subject:

Full Name;

age (when examining children - indicating full years and months);

social status (when examining adults - information about education, field of professional activity, position held; for children - information about the type of school, class);

family status (information about the family: complete, incomplete, large, etc.);

medical status and individual characteristics (health group, chronic diseases, disability, left-handedness, injuries, wounds, etc.).

2. Purpose of the survey.

3. A list of methods used and the conditions for conducting the examination (especially if they are unfavorable: poorly ventilated room, poor lighting, noise, etc.).

4. The results of observing the behavior of the subject during the conversation and diagnosis:

emotional and somatic state;

level of motivation and interest in the survey and its results;

degree of independence in completing tasks;

unusual behavioral manifestations.

5. Description of the examination results:

achievements of the subject when performing test tasks (in the context of the purpose of the study);

indicators for which less good results were obtained;

indicators for which low values ​​were obtained and which require correction.

6. Conclusions:

the level of formation of the studied mental formations in accordance with the stated purpose of the examination.

7. Address recommendations. The recommendations of the psychodiagnostician are addressed either to the subject himself, or to the person ordering the examination, or to a psychologist who will further provide psychological support to the subject, determining for him the methods and forms of psychological assistance.

8. Date of writing the report and signature of the psychologist (with a transcript of the surname). The conclusion is completed with the personal signature of the psychodiagnostician and the date of drawing up the conclusion. The personal signature of a psychologist is a unique expression of responsibility for the correctness of the diagnosis and recommendations.

The complexity and variety of types of psychological diagnosis, the variability of the grounds for its formulation create various kinds of obstacles on the way to the correct decision, as well as conditions for the occurrence of various kinds of diagnostic errors.

Analysis of psychodiagnostic errors shows that they main reasons can be divided into two large groups:

1) objective reasons, caused by the difficulties and complexity of the object of psychological knowledge, the specificity of the psychodiagnostic process, the conditions and means of diagnosis, the level of development of science and technology, etc.;

2) subjective reasons, depending on the cognizing subject (his knowledge, experience, personal characteristics, attention, etc.).

According to various sources, objective diagnostic errors account for 30 to 40% of erroneous diagnoses, with the main determinant being the complexity of the object of psychodiagnosis. The mental system is a single whole. As part of a more global system - an organism, it consists of elements and subsystems that function and interact at different levels. On its basis, complex processes occur that determine the state, behavior and activity of a person. That is, a person and, consequently, his psyche cannot be considered in isolation from his environment and social life, which constantly influence him. Thus, the specialist deals not only with mental forms, but also with all the factors accompanying human life.

This circumstance can be supplemented by the fact that the essence and etiology of many psychological phenomena are poorly studied. Their knowledge is complicated by the individual character, originality and atypicality of a particular case, as well as the almost innumerable variability of the characteristics and differences of people. An additional complication is the lack of clear cause-and-effect relationships between the effects and the psychological causes that can cause them.

Another factor in this list is the insufficient level of development of psychodiagnostic methods, which is associated with the absence or limitations of existing measurement and assessment tools, which in some cases do not allow for a reliable interpretation of the data obtained.

Among the subjective sources of diagnostic errors, the most significant are the following.

1. Personal qualities of a specialist. Thus, according to V.S. Yurkevich, “the danger of stereotyping threatens to a greater extent specialists who are very emotionally stable, with an inert type of GNI.” She also notes that personal determination also manifests itself when a specialist makes a decision based on personal, for example, selfish or altruistic interests, often motivated by his own beliefs or considerations. An additional condition is the specificity of perception and processing of information, on the basis of which various diagnostic signs are taken into account and “put to work.”

2. Insufficient level of professional training, when a specialist lacks professional knowledge and skills to solve a diagnostic problem. This leads to the impossibility of adequate consideration of the problem situation and a professional assessment of the problem. In addition, it is important not only to know your subject, but to be more or less fluent in related fields (for example, defectology, speech therapy, pedagogy); it is important to take into account the dynamics of the development of the professional sphere, constantly replenishing and systematizing knowledge throughout the entire professional activity.

3. Insufficient level of development of professional reflection, which reflects the specialist’s lack of awareness of his own actions in solving professional problems and does not allow him to evaluate their success or outline ways for professional growth.

The materials of the study by M. M. Kashapov, who studied the peculiarities of how teachers solve pedagogical problems related to the recognition process, showed that a significant part of teachers (82% of 149 surveyed) are most often unable to analyze and realize their mistakes. While the skill and professionalism of a teacher lies precisely in the ability to competently analyze and evaluate mistakes made, which will help in the future to avoid wrong decisions and actions.

4. Professional experience, which contributes both to the formation of professional qualities and professional consciousness of a specialist, and to the emergence of cliches, patterns of activity, prejudices and stereotypes. Each of the professional areas where diagnostic activities are carried out has its own specific stereotyping and professional cliches. Thus, in psychology, stereotypes are largely formed under the influence of the scientific school that a specialist adheres to and which determines his system of views and beliefs. Pedagogical stereotypes, in turn, are determined by social factors (“a child whose parents are alcoholics is intellectually deficient”), academic performance, discipline of schoolchildren, as well as external attractiveness, gender and even... the name of the student. Such overgeneralizations have a pronounced evaluative nature and contribute to the formation of prejudices and preconceived attitudes. An evaluative, biased attitude contributes to “seeing” only negative, harmful qualities in a child. In this case, the diagnosis of disadvantage becomes a stigma for the student, while compensatory mechanisms and resources for personal growth are not noticed or ignored. The situation can be further aggravated if the teacher not only considers himself an “expert” in his profession, but also an authoritative adult who is “always and in everything right” for the child. “The teaching profession,” wrote L. S. Vygotsky, “imposes indelible typical features on its bearer and creates pitiful figures who act as apostles of walking truth” (Vygotsky L. S., 1983, p. 255).

It is these circumstances that cause modern opposition to psychodiagnostic activity in education, which is increasingly beginning to be viewed from the position of causing harm to the child and violating the safety of his development.

Objective and subjective reasons for erroneous psychological diagnoses raise the question of the quality of psychodiagnostic activity, its success or failure. If we take into account that the meaning of diagnostic activity in practice is the recognition of the real state of the mental system and its elements, the establishment of objectively valid reasons for its functioning, then the concept adequacy diagnosis most fully reflects the leading sign of its quality, characterizing the truth, accuracy and correspondence to reality.

In psychological diagnostics, the criterion of adequacy corresponds to the concept of “validity”. Valid a psychological diagnosis is a reliable conclusion. This correspondence is established in different ways: a) by the presence (coincidence) of the main features characterizing the phenomenon being diagnosed (content validity); b) comparison of information from different sources confirming the existence of certain psychological characteristics (validity of correspondence); c) establishing a relationship between the primary diagnostic results and data obtained after some time (predictive validity); d) checking the results of correctional and developmental work (catamnesis).

Thus, a valid psychological diagnosis is based on two main features: objectivity and reliability. Associated criteria for the quality of a psychological diagnosis, which determine its merits and value of use in practice, are timeliness (efficiency), labor intensity (costs of its formulation - time, moral, psychometric, procedural) and individuality (correspondence to a specific case).

Psychological diagnosis – a relatively complete result of a psychologist’s activity, aimed at clarifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics with the aim of: - assessing their current state, - forecasting further development, - developing recommendations determined by practical needs.

The structuring of a psychological diagnosis is the bringing of various parameters of a person’s mental state into a specific system.

Psychological diagnosis is important for the psychological prognosis of behavior (with the exception of diagnosing the current mental state).

In cases of experienced distress, the provision of not just advisory, but also psychotherapeutic assistance is required. If a person’s suffering adds up to the clinical picture of a disease and the person consults a doctor, then psychotherapeutic assistance is of a medical nature and is provided by a psychotherapist or psychologist under the guidance of a doctor.

The essence: 1) the nature of trouble lies in the characteristics of the individual, the specifics of the life situation and the nature of relationships with others; 2) the person seeking help is both objectively not and subjectively does not recognize himself as sick.

Psychological diagnosis (PD) is the final result of a psychologist’s activity, aimed at clarifying the essence of individual psychological characteristics of a person in order to assess their current state, predict further development and develop recommendations determined by the task of a psychodiagnostic examination. The subject of PD is the establishment of individual psychological differences in normal and in pathology.

View according to L. S. Vygotsky:1. symptomatic (or empirical). The diagnosis is limited to the statement of certain characteristics or symptoms, and practical conclusions are drawn on the basis of the cat. This diagnosis is not strictly scientific, since the establishment of symptoms never automatically leads to a diagnosis. Here the work of a psychologist can be replaced by machine data processing. 2. tiological diagnosis. It takes into account not only the presence of certain features (symptoms), but also the reasons for their occurrence. 3. typological diagnosis (highest level), a conclusion in determining the place and meaning of the data obtained in a holistic, dynamic picture of the personality. The diagnosis must always bear in mind the complex personality structure.

The diagnosis is inextricably linked with the prognosis. The content of the prognosis and diagnosis coincide, but the prognosis is based on the ability to understand the internal logic of the self-movement of the development process so much that, based on the past and present, it outlines the path of development. It is recommended to divide the forecast into separate periods and resort to long-term repeated observations. The development of the theory of psychological diagnosis in our time is one of the most important tasks of psychodiagnostics.

Principle: Vygotsky repeatedly noted that a thorough examination should be carried out by a specialist knowledgeable in issues of psychopathology, defectology and therapeutic pedagogy. The specificity of making an age-psychological diagnosis is associated, first of all, with the use of ideas originating in the works of L.S. Vygotsky’s systemic analysis of the phenomena of child development, that is, considering them in the context of the social situation of development, the hierarchy of activities and psychology. new formations in the sphere of consciousness and personality of the child. The principle of analysis is the individual. the child’s life path requires recreating this path.

Considering specific patterns as essential guidelines in the diagnosis of developmental disorders, it should be recognized that it is the reliance on knowledge and timely identification of these features that allows one to avoid diagnostic errors in cases difficult for differential diagnosis. Only the identification of such patterns, their dynamics and “profile” based on a clear age correlation, taking into account “the entire sequence of child development”, focusing on a thorough and systematic analysis of “all the features of each age, stages and phases of all main types of normal and abnormal development, the entire structure and dynamics of child development in their diversity” allows us to speak about the formulation of a causal psychological diagnosis in the sense in which it was proposed by L.S. Vygotsky.