26.09.2019

Abstract: Features of speech errors of primary schoolchildren and ways to correct them. Typical mistakes in children's speech

The study of children's speech begins in the mid-19th century. This is associated with Hippolyte Thain (1828-1893), who published recordings of his daughter's speech in the English-language magazine Mind. Charles Darwin then published recordings of his son's speech.

Features of children's speech:

The process of language acquisition by an adult cannot be confused with the process of language acquisition by a child. An adult learns a foreign language consciously, while a child learns his native language intuitively.

The rules of the language are learned by the child independently; adults can only adjust, correct, passing on their speech experience to the child.

American researcher Dan Slobin writes: “Rules intended for broad classes of phenomena are formed earlier than rules related to subclasses: general rules are learned earlier than specific ones. ”

Scheme for generating a speech fact.

In adults:

Normal speech system

In children: Speech system

Knowledge of the norm reflects a higher degree of speech culture - this is knowledge of the possibilities of implementation. However, all components of this triad can be complicated: within the system, and within the norm, there are variant places.

The concept of language filters is a symbol for factors that limit the action of a system or model. These prohibitions seem to be “unmotivated.” In the speech activity of children, there is no filter system until a certain age. This has the effect of “filling the gap.” The child “extracts” language from speech and organizes it. Initially, children's language is generalized and extremely simplified and is a functional version of the normative language.

4. Typology of errors along the general “system-norm” line:

a) “filling the gap” (empty cells) errors.

Dream - no dreams.

Blue was blue.

b) choosing a non-normative option:

decorate-decorate

colorize-colorize

c) errors such as “eliminating facts” alien to the modern language system.

d) elimination of “ideomaticity”.

d) the influence of vernacular.

5. Typology of children's errors by language level:

a) Word-forming:

lamp+lampshade=lampshade

arm-sleeve

leg-leg

b) Word grammar:

c) Grammatical number:

the use of real or abstract nouns as concrete countable nouns.

tray of teas

play music

d) case errors:

d) choice of ending option:

stand in the corner, leaves in the wind.

e) the ending of the word.

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Types of speech errors

First, let's figure out what speech errors are. Speech errors are any cases of deviation from current language norms. Without their knowledge, a person can live, work and communicate normally with others. But the effectiveness of the actions taken in certain cases may suffer. In this regard, there is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. And in situations where our personal success depends on it, this is unacceptable.

The author of the classification of speech errors given below is Doctor of Philology Yu. V. Fomenko. Its division, in our opinion, is the simplest, devoid of academic pretentiousness and, as a result, understandable even to those who do not have a special education.

Types of speech errors:

Examples and causes of speech errors

S. N. Tseitlin writes: “The complexity of the speech generation mechanism is a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors.” Let's look at special cases, based on the classification of types of speech errors proposed above.

Pronunciation errors

Pronunciation or spelling errors arise as a result of violation of the rules of spelling. In other words, the reason lies in the incorrect pronunciation of sounds, sound combinations, individual grammatical structures and borrowed words. These also include accentological errors - violation of stress norms. Examples:

Pronunciation: “of course” (and not “of course”), “poshti” (“almost”), “plotlit” (“pays”), “precedent” (“precedent”), “iliktrichesky” (“electric”), “colidor” ("corridor"), "laboratory" ("laboratory"), "tyshcha" ("thousand"), "shchas" ("now").

Accent: “calls”, “dialogue”, “agreement”, “catalogue”, “overpass”, “alcohol”, “beets”, “phenomenon”, “driver”, “expert”.

Lexical errors

Lexical errors are violations of the rules of vocabulary, first of all, the use of words in meanings that are unusual for them, distortion of the morphemic form of words and the rules of semantic agreement. They come in several types.

Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it. This is the most common lexical speech error. Within this type there are three subtypes:

Mixing words that are similar in meaning: “He read the book back.”
Mixing words that sound similar: excavator - escalator, colossus - colossus, Indian - turkey, single - ordinary.
A mixture of words that are similar in meaning and sound: subscriber - subscription, addressee - addressee, diplomat - diploma holder, well-fed - well-fed, ignorant - ignoramus. “Cashier for business travelers” (required – business travelers).

Word writing. Examples of errors: Georgian, heroism, underground, spender.

Violation of the rules of semantic agreement of words. Semantic agreement is the mutual adaptation of words along the lines of their material meanings. For example, you cannot say: “ I raise this toast", since “to lift” means “to move,” which is not consistent with the wish. “Through a door that is ajar” is a speech error, because the door cannot be both ajar (open a little) and wide open (wide open) at the same time.

This also includes pleonasms and tautologies. Pleonasm is a phrase in which the meaning of one component is entirely included in the meaning of another. Examples: “the month of May”, “traffic route”, “residence address”, “huge metropolis”, “be on time”. Tautology is a phrase whose members have the same root: “We were given a task,” “The organizer was a public organization,” “I wish you long creative life.”

Phraseological errors

Phraseological errors occur when the form of phraseological units is distorted or they are used in a meaning that is unusual for them. Yu. V. Fomenko identifies 7 varieties:

Changing the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “As long as the matter is the case” instead of “As long as the trial is the case”;
Truncation of phraseological units: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” (phraseological unit: “beat his head against the wall”);
Expansion of the lexical composition of phraseological units: “You have come to the wrong address” (phraseological unit: go to the right address);
Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological unit: “I can’t stand sitting with my hands folded.” Correct: “folded”;
Contamination (combination) of phraseological units: “You can’t do everything with your sleeves folded” (a combination of phraseological units “carelessly” and “hands folded”);
Combination of pleonasm and phraseological unit: "Random stray bullet";
Use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning: “Today we will talk about the film from cover to cover.”

Morphological errors

Morphological errors are incorrect formation of word forms. Examples of such speech errors: “reserved seat”, “shoes”, “towels”, “cheaper”, “one and a half hundred kilometers away”.

Syntax errors

Syntactic errors are associated with violation of the rules of syntax - the construction of sentences, the rules of combining words. There are a lot of varieties, so we will give just a few examples.

Incorrect matching: “There are a lot of books in the closet”;
Mismanagement: “Pay for travel”;
Syntactic ambiguity: “Reading Mayakovsky made a strong impression”(have you read Mayakovsky or have you read Mayakovsky’s works?);
Design offset: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention.” Correct: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention”;
Extra correlative word in the main clause: “We looked at those stars that dotted the whole sky.”

Spelling mistakes

This type of error occurs due to ignorance of the rules of writing, hyphenation, and abbreviation of words. Characteristic of speech. For example: “the dog barked”, “sit on the chairs”, “come to the train station”, “Russian. language", "gram. error".

Punctuation errors

Punctuation errors - incorrect use of punctuation marks when...

Stylistic errors

We have dedicated a separate section to this topic.

Ways to correct and prevent speech errors

How to prevent speech errors? Work on your speech should include:

Reading fiction.
Visiting theaters, museums, exhibitions.
Communication with educated people.
Constant work to improve speech culture.

Online course “Russian language”

Speech errors are one of the most problematic topics that receive little attention in school. There are not so many topics in the Russian language in which people most often make mistakes - about 20. We decided to devote the course “to” to these topics. During the classes, you will have the opportunity to practice competent writing skills using a special system of multiple distributed repetitions of material through simple exercises and special memorization techniques.

Sources

Bezzubov A. N. Introduction to literary editing. – St. Petersburg, 1997.
Savko I. E. Basic speech and grammatical errors
Sergeeva N. M. Speech, grammatical, ethical, factual errors...
Fomenko Yu. V. Types of speech errors. – Novosibirsk: NSPU, 1994.
Tseytlin S. N. Speech errors and their prevention. – M.: Education, 1982.

Eliseeva M.B.,Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor, Russian State Pedagogical University, St. Petersburg

The article describes the approach to speech disorders of well-known specialists in general speech underdevelopment in children - N.S. Zhukova, E.M. Mastyukova and T.B. Filicheva. The presented analysis of language acquisition in the process of onto- and dysontogenesis of speech allows us to classify all disorders into three main types.
1. Delayed speech development
This includes everything that is characteristic of children with normal speech development, but with speech dysontogenesis is delayed for several years:
- syllabic elision (reduction of the syllabic structure of a word);
- persistent and long-term absence of speech imitation of new words (normally - no more than 5-6 months after the appearance of the first 3-5 words);
- small dictionary;
- lack of phrasal speech;
- use of unchangeable words, lack of morphological categories.
These deviations in general do not cause objections, except for one thing - imitation as an indispensable characteristic of the norm, arising no later than six months after the appearance of the first words. There are different points of view regarding the role of imitation in language development. Behaviorists believe that new behavior must be imitated before it can be introduced into one's repertoire. In 1941, R. Jacobson noted the contradiction between this view of language acquisition and the creative nature of its nature. The child discovers the rules of language to understand and create words and sentences never spoken or heard before; imitation cannot explain this. L. Bloom argues that imitation is not necessary in language learning: two out of six children in this study progressed from one-word to two-word utterances without repeating adult speech. The degree of imitation varied among children but remained constant for each child. For children prone to imitation, repetition helped them learn new words. It turned out that children imitate:
- from input (speech addressed to them by adults);
- from what is in the process of assimilation;
- not from what they already know well, and from what they don’t know at all.
The author believes that the disagreement about the role of imitation in language development can be explained by the fact that different researchers have observed different children who are prone or not prone to imitation.
As for the other points, everything is also not so simple, since ideas about what the volume of the vocabulary should be when phrasal speech and morphological categories appear during normal speech development are different even among different speech therapists:
- 10 months - 1-2 words;
- 11 - 3 “babbling” with correlation;
- 12 - 3-4;
- 15 - 6;
- 18 - 7-20;
- 21 - 20;
- 24 - 50;
- 36 - 250.
At 20 words, the child should already be able to pronounce two-word phrases. N.S. Zhukova names 30 words at the moment the phrase appears. Although for Zhenya Gvozdev, whose speech development is recognized as a conventional standard of norm, the first two-word statement in the diary was noted at 1 year 8 months. (sencik dundu - a sunbeam fell behind the chest) when Zhenya’s dictionary had 70 words. In the book by T.B. Filicheva, N.A. Cheveleva, G.V. Chirkina “Fundamentals of Speech Therapy” (1989) gives other figures:
- 10-11 months. - reactions to words;
- 18 - 10-15 words;
- 24 - 300;
- 36 - 1000.
The data regarding speech understanding seems rather vague:
- 9 months - game of okay;
- 10 - situational understanding of addressed speech, objects;
- 12 - understanding of simple instructions supplemented by gestures;
- 15 - without a gesture.
Further, only the display of body parts indicates understanding:
- 18 months - 1;
- 21 - 3;
- 24 - 5.
Only at 36 months. the child understands the meaning of simple prepositions and performs tasks like “put the cube under the cup (in the box).”
Data from parental questionnaires completed in St. Petersburg
at the Institute for Early Intervention, completely different:
- 17 months - shows 3 body parts (85% boys), less than 15 months. (85% girls);
- 21 months - speaks at least two words, except mom and dad (85% of boys), 18 months. (85% girls);
- 40 months - uses at least 20 words (85% of boys), 30 months. (85% girls).
In the Russian speech therapy tradition, there is a desire to tie this or that achievement of a child to an exact age, whereas it would be more correct to indicate the interval: “A baby goes through a number of stages in its development.” This also applies to digital indicators. For example, judging by the data from the Department of Children’s Speech of the Russian State Pedagogical University, at 2 years old, normally developing children can have 50 or about 1000 words.
2. Pathological errors,
not typical for children
with normal speech development
These errors are less obvious than violations of the first group, but they can be signs of pathology for a practicing speech therapist:
- ma - instead of mom, pa instead of dad, ba instead of baba;
- the word mother refers to father and other persons;
- reproduction of a word through two vowel sounds (ao - bus; ua - duck);
- pathological substitutions of consonants (the substitute sound and the one being replaced differ from each other by two or more components, are articulatory distant).
The first three types of disorders, if they occur, occur in very young children - no more than 1.5 years old. However, atypical substitutions of consonants are not uncommon in the speech of normally developing children under 3 years of age (padufka - pillow, kohe - coffee, kesir - kefir). It is probably necessary to clarify which of the atypical substitutions are not typical for normal children. For example, there is almost no consistent replacement of voiced consonants with voiceless ones, as well as soft ones with hard ones (and vice versa), although the substitute sound and the one being replaced differ from each other in only one feature (voiced-voiced or soft-hard). It is typical for the speech of young children to replace only the front-lingual hard consonants with soft ones (syat - sad, kot - cat). A child will never say mummy instead of mommy or pyapya instead of daddy. Also characteristic is the replacement of soft sounds with hard ones - but only labial and only before non-front vowels (fall - again, mother - ball).
Towards anomalous phonetic errors N.S. Zhukova also refers to the reproduction not of the prosody of a whole word, but only of its part (dove - go, girl - de, egg - te, go - di; apple - yaba, look - ati, pants - tani, sausages - sisi, etc.). She writes that with normal speech development, when speech imitation appears, children strive to reproduce precisely the melodic-intonation contour of the word. However, there are other points of view on how a child masters the syllabic structure of a word. S.N. Tseitlin points out that I.A. Sikor-
Sky divided all children into “sound” and “syllabic”. “Later they began to talk about holistic and analytical tactics for comprehending language, extending this opposition also to the area of grammar. “Syllabic” children (children who adhere to a holistic strategy) strive, first of all, to reproduce the syllabic contour of a word, its rhythmic and melodic structure, without caring about the quality of the sounds that make it up. A significant part of children still belong to the “sound” type: they strive not to expand the syllable chain until they achieve a certain accuracy in the articulation of sounds. Zhenya Gvozdeva can be considered a classic “sound” child. “Sound” children master a word “in parts,” while “syllabic” children immediately strive to reproduce it as a whole.” This opinion is not unfounded: a child with normal speech development often turns from “sound” to “syllabic” when pronouncing polysyllabic words becomes possible for him. As a rule, this coincides in time with the development of imitation of adult speech. The desire to pronounce a five-syllable word leads to the appearance in the speech of a 2-year-old child of variants such as kakadafia - photographs, kapaatua - temperature. The child, previously very cautious, ceases to strive for sound accuracy and uses various “techniques” to cope with the pronunciation of difficult words. Syllabic elimination almost disappears, but the number of cases of assimilation in the area of vowels and consonants sharply increases, and metathesis (rearrangement of sounds or syllables) also appears. However, when qualifying children’s speech errors, one should remember the existence of different types of development of the syllabic structure of a word by children: many children begin to speak as “sound” - from “part words”, but a non-speaking child who begins to speak with the help of a speech therapist is also at the beginning stage of their speech development. Therefore, it is probably no coincidence that the above examples of syllable elimination from the speech of children with SLD coincide with examples from the speech of children with normal development and can be classified as the first type (“delayed speech development”).
Another “interesting feature of abnormal child speech” N.S. Zhukova considers the child’s desire to use open syllables. “The desire to “open a syllable” manifests itself most clearly in the addition of vowel sounds to the ends of words in cases where the word ends in a consonant: “matika” (boy), “kotika” (cat). The child seems to complete the word: “myasa” (ball), “gozya” (nail), “abusya” (bus).” However, the tendency to produce final open syllables is well known to researchers of child speech; Many of the examples given are also found in the speech of children with good speech development. For example, in the speech of a 2-year-old child: Papalet is like abusya. This is an abusya bird. - An airplane is like a bus. This is a bird bus.
N.S. Zhukova classifies the first words of “abnormal child speech” as follows:
- correctly pronounced;
- word fragments (with syllabic elision);
- onomatopoeia;
- “contour”, in which the stress and number of syllables are correctly reproduced (we are talking about words in which assimilation has occurred - likening sounds and syllables);
- completely not reminiscent of words in their native language.
However, the initial vocabulary of a normally developing child contains all of these types of words. The last type is also described in foreign and domestic literature on ontolinguistics: these are protowords - vocalizations that contain a constant composition of sounds and references.
are used in typical situations, but are unique to a given child, invented by him, and not based on the speech of an adult.
Thus, most “pathological errors” in children’s speech turn out to be errors of the first type, since children with normal development also make them, but earlier.
In the field of vocabulary N.S. Zhukova notes “a negligible verbal vocabulary, mainly nouns”, the “nominative function” of abnormal child speech. One question arises here: what is considered a “negligible verb dictionary”? Clarification: one cannot talk about pathology without taking into account the different “speech styles” of children (referential and expressive), first identified by K. Nelson based on an analysis of 18 initial lexicons. Among the first 50 words of referential children, objects predominated; in the speech of expressive children there were fewer of them, but there were more pronouns and functional words. These children also used many more interaction words, many of which were fixed phrases. Researchers identify two sources of such linguistic variation.
Firstly, these are different ways of organizing information and a child’s interaction with the world. “Nelson proved,” write B. Goldfield and K. Snow, “that these differences (in children’s initial lexicons - M.E.) reflect differences in children’s hypotheses regarding how language is used. Referential children acquire language in order to talk about objects in the surrounding reality and classify them. Expressive children are more socially oriented and learn meanings to talk about themselves and others."
Secondly, these are the features of the input. The child's speech strategy can be influenced by the mother's speech. Mothers of referential children more often name and describe objects, attracting the child’s attention to them (declarative style), and in the speech of mothers of expressive children there are more incentives and demands that regulate the child’s behavior (directive style).
The speech therapist needs to have an understanding of these styles, since the differences in language acquisition by expressive and referential children are very significant and affect all language levels: not only vocabulary, but also phonetics, morphology, word formation and syntax. It is known that referential children are early talkers, and expressive children are late talkers, often causing concern for parents and specialists. The differences between them are given in the table on p. 32.
Let us dwell on the differences between the grammatical errors of children in normal conditions and in pathology, described by N.S. Zhukova. “Unlike children with normal speech development, who use a grammatical element syntactically correctly within the meaning of one case, number, person, children with impaired speech development do not learn the syntactic meaning of a case for a long time: “eats porridge”, “sits on a chair” (sits on a chair) )". The first case is the use of a grammatically amorphous form of the nominative case instead of (here) the accusative and, in all likelihood, instead of all the others. This, again, is the prolonged use of unchangeable words, the absence of grammatical categories, and not inter-case confusion. But the second case cannot be considered as an example of failure to assimilate the meaning of the case: when a preposition is omitted, the ending of the prepositional case is used correctly, since the inflection -у is present in some frequency words of the Russian language precisely in the locative meaning (on the closet, on the bridge, on the shore, in the forest, in the pelvis, etc.). It is no coincidence that such errors are often found in children with normal speech development (On a mushroom; Are horses sleeping on the beach?).
An error like many chairs should also not be considered anomalous: this is the only case of intercase confusion (the endings of the genitive plural and the prepositional plural), which is often found in speech during normal development. S.N. Tseitlin writes: “Children, as a rule, can choose an inflection that does not correspond to the normative one, but at the same time they never go beyond the case, i.e. the case itself is determined correctly - in accordance with semantic premises. However, there is one exception to this rule: there is a mixture of inflections of the genitive and prepositional cases in the plural, i.e. you hear: “I fell off my sled,” “He’s already in stockings,” “We have a calf, only it doesn’t have horns,” etc. The reasons for this phenomenon are not yet completely clear. Most likely, the case is chosen correctly here too (otherwise a similar confusion would be observed in the singular, but this, however, does not happen). Apparently, the child is misled by the certain sound similarity of the inflections -ah and -ov (pronounced as -af). “X” and “F” are often confused when perceiving speech; obviously, in this case, they are not sufficiently differentiated by ear. This is obviously an error in perceptual speech, which turns into an error in production." Perhaps there are other reasons for such errors, since the use of the -е genitive ending instead of the ending is phonetically inexplicable
-ah prepositional: “This story will be about Katya and her friends: Long, Borokhvost, Fire-Horse.” (From the essay of an excellent second-grader.) Or the use of the ending -ah instead of zero: “The ducklings had a problem with the harp” (From a story by a 6-year-old child). Errors of this type are found not only among preschool children, but among schoolchildren and even adults in oral and written speech: “In autumn, leaves fall from the trees” (from an essay by a second-grader); “...reflections on the social and moral laws by which humanity lives” (from an applicant’s essay); “...based on these products of activity” (from the thesis).
Another feature of speech development pathology noted by N.S. Zhukova, - pronouncing vowels (“vocal substitute”) in place of prepositions: akamani - from a pocket, atui - on a chair. But the use of protoprepositions (“fillers”, certain substitutes for real prepositions) by children, filling the place of future prepositions, at the initial stage of mastering morphology is known to researchers of normal children’s speech. At first, all forms are used either without prepositions at all (me -
at me, on the chest of drawers - on the chest of drawers, grazing flour - went for milk), or are accompanied by the sound [a], which acts as a proto-preposition (and kiiti - on the porch, and for the lighthouses - for milk, and Yanya - about Vanya). Consequently, here we may not be talking about an anomalous type of error, but again about a developmental delay: normally, protoprepositions are replaced by real prepositions after 5-6 months. after the emergence of the first grammatical categories (approximately 2.3-2.6 years), when prepositions appear in the speech of children who used the first grammatical forms without them at all. Statement by N.S. Zhukova that “normally, the period during which a child consistently omits prepositions is unusually short, only 1.5-3 months,” does not correspond to reality: the forms of all cases appeared in Zhenya Gvozdev’s speech within 28 days, and the first prepositions - after 5 months! See in the diary of A.N. Gvozdeva: “There are still no prepositions, although case forms have been learned for a long time.”
“Many prepositional constructions of abnormal children's speech may indicate a peculiar understanding by children of the meanings of function words: they say “from the bucket” in the sense of pouring out of a bucket; “behind the oilcloth” in the meaning - to hide under the oilcloth; “with a knife”, “with a ball” in the meaning - to cut with a knife, play with a ball, i.e. in the meaning of compatibility of action with the object,” writes N.S. Zhukova. However, similar errors associated with the wrong choice of preposition are often encountered in children’s speech when mastering syntax. For example, in the speech of a 3-year-old child with a good level of speech development there are expressions: “I want to kiss you on the nose”; “I cried about my mother”, “Dad is joking with me”, “Don’t be capricious with me”, etc.
3. Disharmonious relationship between the development of components of language ability
Relationship between vocabulary and syntax
“Does not form sentences after 30 words”; “Dictionary 50-100 words in the absence of two-word words
sayings." Such an exact figure seems strange, as mentioned earlier. In addition, it is necessary to take into account whether the child has begun to acquire grammatical categories: he may use a compensatory strategy, mastering morphology before syntax, thus avoiding “telegraphic speech”, i.e. constructing sentences from unchangeable words. Thus, having mastered the category of case and number of a noun, a child, with the help of inflections, can often convey the same thing that another child at the same time conveys with the help of two-word statements of “telegraph style”. Compare the requirement to give a shovel (scoop) in the speech of different children: apatka - give a shovel and apatka give - give a shovel.
Relationship between syntax and morphology
 Using unchangeable root words in 3-5 word statements for a long time. Indeed, a child who uses “telegraphic speech”, not for 2-3 months, but for about a year, belongs to the risk group in terms of speech development. However, it should be taken into account that children of the expressive type can begin to produce sentences with a small set of words, combining them in all possible ways, and do not abandon the “telegraphic style”, i.e. a rather complex syntax exists for a long time without any morphology at all.

Premature use of a preposition (earlier than inflection), use of an unchangeable word with a preposition (s mama).
In the most severe cases of manifestation of agrammatism.

Such cases are not known to researchers of normal child speech.
In general, in our opinion, we can talk about the underdevelopment of the child’s ability to generalize, which leads to the following consequences:
- long-term coexistence of sentences, grammatical
ski correctly and incorrectly formed, words with and without endings (katatya aizakh and skates - to ski and skate);
- a small dictionary, since normally a lexical explosion in the development of the lexicon occurs at the moment when the child makes the discovery that he wrote about at the beginning of the twentieth century. German psychologist W. Stern: “Every object has its own name.” Apparently, especially
knowledge of this fact is given later and with great difficulty to children with speech pathology;
- lack of ability to use a “prompting pattern of words”, to form forms by analogy, i.e. little or no innovation in speech. In other words, most children with normal speech development have a large number of errors - formative and word-formative innovations (occasionalisms). It's hard to disagree with N.S. Zhukova that “the same manifestations of agrammatism, observed at different stages of speech development, should be assessed differently. Depending on the stage of speech development, the same irregular forms of words used by children act as indicators of evolution in language acquisition , then as indicators of involution."
However, some caveats are required here:
- innovations are characteristic primarily of children with a referential style - children with an expressive speech style produce much less innovation, since their path of language acquisition is mainly imitative;
- it is important which manifestations of agrammatism and at what age act as indicators of evolution and when they become indicators of involution.
Of fundamental importance for speech diagnostics is the ability of a speech therapist to recognize differences:
- between word-formative and formative innovations. Word formation is almost always a plus in assessing a child’s speech development. Let's consider some word-formation occasionalisms in the speech of 8-year-old Zhenya Gvozdev, recognized by speech therapists as the standard of the norm: I don’t care for the middle crucian carp - he asks to give him the crucian carp that lies in the middle of the frying pan; Get up! Quite a lazy day; Winding road - about the road from Yalta to Livadia; Thickbark - about watermelon; The cat puts on - gives birth to kittens, lambs; After shaving - after shaving; It is cramped - it is potbellied at the top, and thinner at the bottom - it speaks of a cactus expanding at the top; Oarboat; It has not yet been nailed down - not knocked down with nails; We need to make it (the boat) - do it; Water-bearing - this is the name given to a boat made of rotten wood that absorbs water very much; If it is destroyed, it will turn into dust; Georgian - Georgian; Our wall is getting thinner; I’m doing holiday assignments now - about examples given during the holidays; I finish the holes - I punch them with a chisel; He spoke about primitive people, then about second-primitive and third-primitive people; Prisoners - for-
keyed; Calls the rider a sitter;
- between different types of formative innovations. So, there are difficult, late-learning forms; long-term mistakes that even a 6-7 year old child with excellent speech development has the right to make.
List of used
and recommended literature
1. Balobanova V.P., Titova T.A., Chistovich I.A. Primary assessment of communicative development of young children // Diagnosis of speech disorders in children and organization of speech therapy work in a preschool setting: Coll. method. rec. St. Petersburg, 2002.
2. Gvozdev A.N. From first words to first grade. Saratov, 1981.
3. Zhukova N.S., Mastyukova E.M., Filicheva T.B. Overcoming general speech underdevelopment in preschool children. M., 1990.
4. Eliseeva M.B. Speech ontogenesis: a linguist’s view // Speech therapist. 2005. No. 4.
5. Tseytlin S.N. Language and the child. M., 2000.
6. Bloom L. Language development from two to three. 1991.
7. Goldfield B., Snow C.E. Individual differences in language acquisition // The development of language. Ed. by J. Berko Gleason. NY, 1993.
8. Nelson K. Structure and strategy in learning to talk: Monographs of the Society for Research in child development. 1973.

2. Formation of the phonological system in children. The concept of differential phonological features of sounds, “stratification” as a systemic phonological phenomenon.

3. Patterns of mastering the articulatory side of speech production.

4. The sequence of appearance of sounds of the native language in the child’s speech, analysis of the factors that determine it.

5. Typology of speech errors characteristic of children's speech: omissions, substitutions, distortions of sounds in words.

6. Mastery of the syllabic structure of a word.

The first step in the development of a baby's pronunciation abilities is the infant cry. The sound composition of the cry, compared with subsequent infant vocalizations, turns out to be relatively simple. Subsequently, consistent progressive changes occur in the sound composition of children's vocalizations.

The development of this line of speech development is actively carried out both in domestic and foreign science. Using various methodological techniques, a large body of evidence has been obtained that has formed the content of many reviews (see, for example, Gleason, 1993; Kent & Miolo, 1995; Vihman, 1996). In agreement with data on the very early manifestation of the ability to distinguish word-like sounds, an equally early manifestation of the infant’s ability to imitate the sounds of the language around him is shown. Traditionally, it was believed that speech imitation first appears in a child around one year of age. It is in the spirit of this point of view that the fundamental book by de Boyasson-Bardies (De Boyasson-Bardies, 1993) was written. In his publication, the author provides data on the time of appearance of speech imitation in children raised in different cultures.

In accordance with the accepted point of view, one year of age is presented as the most likely age for the appearance of initial word forms. However, studies of more approximate imitative vocalizations have revealed much earlier dates for the onset of the ability to imitate speech sounds.

Thus, in the work of P. Kuhl and A. Meltzov (Kuhl & MeltzofT, 1995), vocalizations of infants were studied in groups of children 12, 16 and 20 weeks old. The kids watched short 5-minute videos of a woman pronouncing the sounds a, i, u. During the sessions, which took place two days later on the third, children's vocalizations were recorded, and then their computerized spectrographic analysis was carried out, as well as phonetic transcription. The results showed that infants develop marked development in their imitation of perceived speech between 12 and 20 weeks of age. The authors consider the data from their experiments as evidence of a close connection between perceptual and motor speech activity. As P. Kuhl writes about it, “...perception influences production at the earliest stage of language development, confirming the idea that the perceptual-motor connection begins to function extremely early” (Kuhl, 1994, p. 816).

The line of development of perception and the line of pronunciation of speech sounds are in clear alignment with one another.

A remarkable feature of the development of the sound side of children's speech is that all babies, regardless of the place of their birth and the language sounding around them, begin their sound self-expression with approximately the same “own” forms. However, soon after birth, at the age of about 3 months, signs of surrounding sounds similar to the language appear in their vocalizations, and after a year, under normal living conditions, each baby “gropes” for the phonetic contours of his native language. How does this happen? What are the reasons and what are the ways to develop this ability?

There are two lines of research on this topic: one of them concentrates on the question of what baggage the infant brings with him from birth to his ability to produce sound; the second examines the gains that occur as a result of learning or imitating the speech of others during the first year of a baby's life.

In the development of the identified problems, the research of V.I. is of interest. Beltyukova (Beltyukov, 1977, 1988, 1997). The author's work is based on a longitudinal study of the period of babbling and the first words of 6 children; episodic observations of the development of pronunciation in many normal infants are added to this material. As a result of the analysis of the obtained material, the author established that the development of the sound composition of children's vocalizations proceeds in a strictly natural way, and both innate and environmental influences occupy each place in this process. The material of early children's vocalizations provided the basis for the identification of 4 original “phoneme nests”. These are neutral vowels, labial, anterior and posterior articulations. According to the author, four main elements make up the basic structure that children receive genetically from birth. The rest of the set of phonetic elements arises under the influence of speech patterns of surrounding people. The author was able to identify the principles by which the development of the sound system of children's speech occurs. Two directions of development in each of the initial nests are described; they are designated as vertical and horizontal (see diagram: Beltyukov, 1988, pp. 78-79; Beltyukov, 1997, p. 62). A characteristic feature of the vertical path of development is the strict continuity of the appearance of sounds. They appear in the vocalizations of infants in a certain order, and subsequent sounds are, as it were, “pulled” from the previous ones. The preceding ones, for some time, can act as substitutes for the subsequent ones (Beltyukov, 1997, p. 55). This kind of linear sequence is built on the basis of the maturation of the child’s articulatory capabilities.

The horizontal path of development is based on external acoustic influences, oppositions of sounds, and the formation of differentiations. As a result, a “splitting” of the original phoneme occurs, which initially represents, as it were, an “alloy” for newly emerging forms. The splitting of “mother phonemes” occurs according to a dichotomous principle (Beltyukov, 1988, p. 76). The whole process operates with triplets: the original form is its bifurcation. As a result, a “phoneme tree” is formed with its four branches, which constitutes the system of phonemic structure of the child’s language (Beltyukov, 1997, p. 56). According to the author, the very ability to split phonemes and sequentially build up triads is phylogenetically prepared. The principles developed in relation to the phonemic system of language, V.I. Beltyukov extends to many other areas: the closest of them is the grammatical system of the language. He draws more distant parallels with the genetic system and the formation of an ordered Universe (Beltyukov, 1997).

Along with the line of identifying the natural basis of the sound development of infants, studies have shown the specific influence of the native language. It begins to affect children's vocalizations long before the age of one. Approaching the sound of the native language occurs to a large extent due to a decrease in the composition of non-specific sounds (Oiler & Lynch, 1992). Thus, Beltyukov showed that out of 74 observed babbling sounds, 16 disappear over time.

In the work of E.E. Lyakso et al. (Lyakso et al., 2002) found that in the vocalizations of a three-month-old baby there are isolated cases when the sounds of the baby are correlated with the sounds of “adult language”. A clear manifestation of specific phonetic features of the native language is observed starting from the age of six months. At 6-9 months, phonemic categories and the grouping of similar sounds around them are detected in children's vocalizations. By 12 months, the main phonemic categories of vowels characteristic of the Russian language emerge. At the same time, the number of sounds that are non-specific for a given language decreases.

In another work, the influence of mother-child interactions on the formation of the phonetic system of the child’s language was studied (Lyakso, 2002). A hypothesis has been developed that the changes that the mother makes to the sound of her speech, making it more sonorous, articulate, and closer to the baby’s vocalizations, create the basis for mutual imitation, which contributes to the child’s learning. The results of the study provided evidence in favor of the stated hypothesis.

Note that the research data presented relate only to the elementary level of functioning of the pronunciation block - the articulation of phonemes. At the same time, isolated phonemes, as is known, are not used in speech: a person speaks in words, phrases, periods. What rules does the process of articulating complex phonemic sequences - words, phrases - obey?

It is clear that the holistic picture of the operation of the pronunciation block must be supplemented with facts related to this area.

This kind of data was proposed by A.A. Leontiev in his analysis of the development of the sound side of a child’s speech up to 3 years of age (Leontiev, 1999). It is shown that from the period of babbling, the most important features of children's phonetics arise: correlation of different sounds, localization of articulations, constancy of pronunciation, relevance (correlation with the language of others). In babbling, the syntagmatic organization of speech is determined. This manifests itself in the fact that a syllable structure arises, the flow of speech breaks up into syllabic quanta. Somewhat later, an early equivalent of the word appears: a sequence of syllables is united by accentuation (usually the stress falls on the first syllable) and melody.

Sounds become constant, although these forms do not have the main function of the word - subject reference. The latter occurs in different children at different points in time, usually close to one year of age. With the appearance of the first subject-related words, the course of phonetic development is suspended, which is associated with an increase in the active vocabulary and the appearance of the first verbal generalizations.

A.A. Leontyev believes that during this period the development of syntagmatic phonetics occurs and identifies a number of its features.

Among them, the most significant are the emergence of arbitrariness in the pronunciation of a word as a whole, the child’s processing of the sound appearance of the word, the correlation of children’s articulations with the sounds of their native language (Leontyev, 1999, p. 178).

The moment of slowdown in vocabulary growth was noted by the author at the age of about one and a half years and he associates it with the formation of paradigmatic phonetics. The stabilization of the latter provides the basis for the subsequent rapid growth of the dictionary, and then the emergence of two-word sentences. This marks the beginning of syntagmatic grammar, the most important aspect of the development of children's speech, the consideration of which is, however, beyond the scope of this paragraph.

Many scientists have studied the problems of development and perception of speech in children (B.G. Ananyev, V.I. Beltyukov, E.N. Vinarskaya, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Gvozdev, R.E. Levina, M.E. Khvattsev, N.H. Shvachkin and others).

Speech is not an innate ability of a person; it is formed gradually, along with the development of the child. One of the earliest developing sensory processes in a child is phonemic hearing. It is known that newborns already have sensitivity to sounds, which manifests itself as a change in the general motor activity of the child, a violation of the frequency and rhythm of breathing, and inhibition of sucking movements. However, there is an opinion that in a newborn, acoustic (as well as optical) receptors perform only a general trophic function in relation to the nerve centers. This is proven by the fact that a newborn baby reacts to both sound and optical stimuli in the same way: with strong stimuli, the whole body shudders and blinks. Studies of the activity of the auditory analyzer of a newborn have shown that already in the first days of life a child is able to distinguish sounds by pitch and timbre (E.N. Vinarskaya, 1987).

It is extremely important that in the third or fourth week of life, auditory concentration occurs not only on strong sounds, but also on the speech of an adult. Psychologists believe that it is from this moment that the process of separating phonemic hearing from sound-pitch hearing begins. A.N. Leontyev (1969) points out that the child gradually becomes more and more “attentive” precisely to the sounds of human speech, which cause a pronounced reaction of concentration in him.

N.H. Shvachkin identified two periods in the development of a child’s speech perception. In the first, pre-phonemic period of rhythmic-intonation speech, the child does not yet differentiate sounds, but only captures the intonation of an adult’s speech and its rhythm, the general sound pattern of words. In other words, at the early stage of speech development, the perception of speech sounds, according to the observations of N.Kh. Shvachkin, occurs not due to specific linguistic means (phonemes), but due to the capture of the rhythmic-melodic structure of a word or phrase (intonation). Thus, when instructed to clap their hands with the sound complex “knock-knock”, children gave the corresponding motor reaction to both “knock-knock” and “uk-uk”, and even while maintaining the beat to “o-o”, pronounced with that same intonation (N.Kh. Shvachkin, 1948, p. 127). Over time, the child develops a need to develop verbal forms of communication. He begins to perceive the sounds of adult speech and use them as meaning distinguishers of words. During this period, called N.H. Shvachkin’s “period of phonemic speech”, the word becomes a means of communication for the child. This period begins to develop from 2 months and ends by 2 years.

Studying the phonemic perception of children in the process of ontogenesis, R.E. Levina (1961) established the following periods of its gradual development:

In the pre-speech period, the sounds produced by the infant’s vocal apparatus (crying, babbling) are not speech in themselves, but intensive training of the articulatory and vocal apparatus during the babbling period prepares individual elements of pronunciation in the formation of speech sounds. At this stage, the child perceives only undifferentiated complexes from surrounding speech, distinguishing only the melody of speech. Based on their overall sound, the child begins to understand individual words and phrases in their most elementary subject-relatedness. This stage is determined by R.E. Levina as prephonemic.

The first period of speech formation is characterized by the appearance of the first words of active speech. The words spoken by the child are in the nature of undifferentiated sound complexes and often merge with the child’s expressive movements; they widely use intonation, raising and lowering the voice, and onomatopoeia. Characteristic of this period is the emergence of the ability to repeat a stressed syllable in a heard word. This period is characterized by elementary phonetics and vocabulary. The initial level of phonemic development corresponds to amorphous meanings of words. Acoustically distant and close phonemes are not differentiated. A child hears sounds differently than an adult. Distorted pronunciation probably corresponds to misperception of speech. There is no difference between correct and incorrect pronunciation.

The second period of speech formation opens up a new level of perception and reproduction of the syllabic structure of a word. Two-syllable constructions appear in the child’s speech, which make it possible to later move on to the use of commonly used lexemes. There is a fairly definite relationship between the pronunciation of individual sounds and the level of the syllabic structure of the word. This dependence is evidenced by the fact that children show the ability to use many sounds (or their substitutes), but only within two-syllable or one-syllable words. The same sounds in three-syllable or polysyllabic words are pronounced slurred. The child begins to find a more adequate sound design of a word not only thanks to the developing articulatory-auditory ability, but thanks to the purposeful repetition of words after adults, which is closely related to motivational processes.

The third period of speech formation marks the transition to the use of trisyllabic structures and the emergence of a more constant pronunciation of sounds. If for the previous period it was typical to use two-syllable words and only the outlines of three-syllable words, now three-syllable words are pronounced quite clearly. Along with the direct reproduction of the word, the beginnings of “observations” arise on the sound composition of the word and the phonetic relationships present in the language. The discrepancy between pronunciation capabilities and the growing differentiation of meanings is clearly evident. “The child confuses the words “bouquet” and “package,” although he distinguishes both objects perfectly. Inaccurate perception of sounds is increasingly becoming an obstacle to expressing the meaning of words. The child is forced to use the same word to denote completely different meanings: for example, the word “belt” serves both to denote a belt and to denote a train. In general, “in the structure of the former undifferentiated “contours” the use of clear phonemes appears” (R.E. Levina, 1961, p. 26).

By the fourth period of speech formation, favorable conditions are created for the manifestation of the ability to reproduce four-syllable and polysyllabic structures. It soon turns out that children begin to grasp such complex phenomena of language as the tendency to change the sound of a voiced consonant before a voiceless consonant or at the end of a word (R.E. Levina, 1961).

According to A.N. Kornev, the phonemic development of a child goes through the following six stages:

1) pre-phonetic stage, characterized by a complete lack of differentiation of the sounds of surrounding speech, speech understanding and the absence of active speech capabilities;

2) the initial stage of phoneme perception: the acoustically most contrasting phonemes are distinguished and similar ones are not distinguished by differential features; the word is perceived globally and recognized by its general sound “appearance” based on prosodic features (intonation and rhythmic characteristics);

3) children begin to hear sounds in accordance with their phonemic characteristics; the child at this stage is able to distinguish between correct and incorrect pronunciations; however, the incorrectly pronounced word is still recognized;

4) at this stage, correct images of the sound of phonemes predominate in perception, but the child continues to recognize the incorrectly pronounced word, i.e. the sensory standards of his phonemic perception are not yet stable;

5) at this stage the development of phonemic perception is completed; the child hears and speaks correctly, and ceases to recognize the meaning of the incorrectly pronounced word.

Until this point, the child’s phonemic development normally occurs spontaneously in the presence of optimal conditions in the speech environment. With the beginning of school (or even in kindergarten), thanks to directed training, he takes another step in the development of his linguistic consciousness.

6) awareness of the sound side of the word and the segments of which it consists; sometimes this process is delayed for various reasons, but achieving this stage of development of phonemic perception is a necessary prerequisite for mastering phonemic analysis (A.N. Kornev, 1997).

The process of gradual development of phonemic perception is described by N.Kh. Shvachkin (1948). He identifies twelve genetic series. First, a distinction occurs between the most roughly opposed sounds - vowels and consonants, then gradual differentiation occurs:

– vowel sounds: [i] - [u], [e] - [o], [i] - [o], [e] - [u], [i] - [e], [u] - [o ];

– consonants: noisy - sonorant, hard - soft, nasal - smooth, labial - lingual, plosive - fricative, anterior-posterior, voiceless - voiced, hissing - whistling, smooth.

In general, N.H. Shvachkin determined that the sequence of distinguishing speech sounds goes from distinguishing contrasting sounds to distinguishing increasingly closer sounds. First, the discrimination of vowels is formed, then consonants, since vowel sounds are more common and are better perceived. The distinction between the presence and absence of a consonant appears before the distinction between consonants.

At first, the child distinguishes sonorant and noisy sounds in speech. Among noisy consonants, it begins to distinguish articulated noisy sounds earlier than others. At this stage, not only hearing takes part in the development of phonemic perception, but articulation also has an influence. Thus, in the process of speech development, the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers closely interact with each other. Underdevelopment of the speech-motor analyzer inhibits the activity of the speech-hearing analyzer. Next, the child distinguishes between hard and soft consonants that are articulated, and then those that later appear in speech. After this, the child learns differentiation within groups of consonants from sonorant to noisy.

In the further development of phonemic perception, sounds different in the method of formation begin to be distinguished, primarily plosives and fricatives. Plosive consonants are distinguished and articulated earlier, since the presence of a stop enhances kinesthetic sensations in the process of articulating these sounds.

Then the distinction between anterior and posterior lingual sounds appears. The difficulty in differentiating these consonants is explained by the inaccuracy of the kinesthetic sensations of the position of the tongue in the oral cavity.

At the next stage of phonemic perception, the child masters the differentiation of voiceless and voiced consonants. First, their acoustic differentiation occurs, on the basis of which pronunciation differentiation arises, which contributes to the improvement of acoustic differentiation. At this stage, a large role is also given to the interaction of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers.

Later, in the process of developing phonemic perception, the child learns the differentiation of sibilant sibilants, smooth sibilants, and i (th). Hissing and whistling sounds in the speech of children appear late, due to their similarity in their articulatory characteristics, and differ only in the subtle differentiation of movements of the anterior part of the back of the tongue.

According to the results of research by N.Kh. Shvachkin, by the age of two, all the sounds of the Russian language are differentiated in the child’s sensory speech, including sounds that are acoustically close, although the function of the speech motor analyzer at this age has not yet been formed.

We find approximately the same sequence of the process of children’s perception of speech sounds in the work of A.N. Gvozdeva (1948, 1961). The results of this author's research indicate that vowel sounds are distinguished first in children's speech, then consonant sounds begin to be differentiated in pronunciation (from 1 year 9 months to 3 years).

IN AND. Beltyukov, studying the development of auditory perception in children, came to the conclusion that at the first stage of the development of phonemic hearing, the most roughly opposed sounds are distinguished: vowels and consonants, while within each of these groups of sounds an even wider generalization is observed. Consonant sounds are not yet differentiated at all, and among the vowels the most phonetically powerful and easily articulated sound [a] stands out; all other vowels are opposed to it, which are also not differentiated from each other (V.I. Beltyukov, 1964).

With the further development of phonemic hearing, the child begins to distinguish the presence or absence of a consonant in a word as a broadly generalized sound (for example, distinguishes “uk” from “zhuk”, where instead of “zh” there can be any consonant sound). This prepares the possibility of differentiating consonants among themselves.

At the next stage of development of phonemic hearing, the child begins to distinguish between sonorant and noisy sounds, without yet differentiating consonants within these groups.

After sonorant and noisy ones have been differentiated, consonants are divided into hard and soft.

Following the differentiation of nasals, there is a gradual differentiation of noisy consonants.

Distinguishing consonants by the presence or absence of voice occurs already at the next stage of the development of phonemic hearing.

The most difficult to distinguish by ear are hissing and whistling sounds (V.I. Beltyukov, 1964).

This is the general picture of the development of phonemic hearing in young children.

In general, based on the data of N.Kh. Shvachkina, A.I. Gvozdeva, V.I. Beltyukov and other researchers of children's speech, we can state that by the age of two, the formation of the phonemic hearing of a child with normal intellectual and speech development is basically complete, and that he can distinguish by ear all the phonemic subtleties of the speech of the adults around him. At the same time, thanks to the early development of phonemic hearing, the child for the first time learns to distinguish various phonetic elements of speech, their precise auditory representations, which become a regulator for the development of these elements in his own pronunciation.

Lecture No. 6. Development of the lexicon (lexical structure of speech)

The course consists of 8 lectures and 4 practical sessions; Some questions of the course are submitted for independent work.

Forms of control: test.

11.1. Children's speech as a subject of scientific study.

Subject, goals and objectives of the course, its place in the system of other scientific disciplines: psychophysiology, neuropsychology, psycholinguistics. The significance of experimental studies of children's speech for modern speech therapy.

Children's speech as a special stage in the ontogenetic development of speech, its first systematic descriptions (diaries, documentary records). A period of intensive study of speech ontogenesis by child psychology and psycholinguistics.

Brief historical information on course theory. Basic concepts of language acquisition. Theory of innate knowledge (N. Chomsky, D. McNeil, D. Slobin). The hypothesis of the semiotic development of the child as the basis of the cognitive approach (J. Piaget). Social-pragmatic direction in the study of the prerequisites for language acquisition (J. Bruner, M. Halliday, etc.).

Research of children's speech in domestic psychology and psycholinguistics (I.N. Gorelov, E.I. Isenina, M.M. Koltsova, E.S. Kubryakova, M.I. Lisina, A.A. Leontiev, N.L. Lepskaya , T.N. Ushakova, S.N. Tseitlin, A.M. Shakhnarovich, D.B. Elkonin). L.S. Vygotsky’s concept of the development of speech as a specific activity mediated by linguistic signs. Sign regulation of human behavior (A.R. Luria). Interiorization of mental functions as the basis for the development of speech, language and thinking (A.N. Leontyev). Patterns of formation and development of human language ability (A.A. Leontyev, A.M. Shakhnarovich).

General periodization of a child’s speech development: the beginning of speech (from 0 to 1 year), speech development at 2-3 years of age, age of “why” (from 4 to 5 years), senior preschool age (5-7 years of life).

11.2. Basic mechanisms of oral speech.

Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech. Speech as a product of the interaction of individual brain structures. The peripheral speech apparatus, its main sections: respiratory (energy system), phonatory (resonator system) and articulatory (generator system). The structure of the respiratory section of the peripheral speech apparatus. Characteristics of physiological and “speech” breathing, types of physiological breathing, “speech” inhalation and exhalation. Phonatorium section of the peripheral speech apparatus. The structure of the vocal folds during phonation. Frequency and power characteristics of the human voice. The importance of resonators in the design of voice timbre. The structure of the organs of articulation, their role in the formation of oral speech. The state of the muscles of the speech apparatus at the moment of pronouncing vowels and consonants.

Neurophysiological and neuropsychological mechanisms of speech. The structure and patterns of functioning of the human nervous system, the central and peripheral nervous system. The brain and its integrative activity. The role of the striopallidal system, the limbic-reticulatory complex, and the cerebellum in providing speech. Structures of the cerebral cortex that provide speech praxis. Primary, secondary and tertiary zones, functional specificity of the left and right hemispheres. Structural-functional model of the brain (A.R. Luria).

Psychological mechanisms of speech. The processes of encoding and decoding a speech utterance (“receiving” and “issuing” messages). The main operational mechanism of speech: composing words from elements, composing phrases from words (N.I. Zhinkin). A general functional mechanism of speech that ensures the functioning of its operational link: comprehension of linguistic material, retention in memory, “anticipatory synthesis” (advanced reflection). Mechanisms of phonation (external) speech design.

11.3. Initial phases of speech ontogenesis.

Congenital prerequisites for speech: the cry and cry of a newborn, their connection with the subjective state of the child. Acoustic features and functional significance of the first vocal manifestations. Variability of infant cries, their phonetic disorder, emotional enrichment, connection with the stages of motor development. Typology of a child's cry, its spectrographic image. Psychophysiological unity of mother and child, communication through screaming.

Primary infant vocalizations: humming and babbling; their biological determination, the inconstancy of primary vocalizations. The period of partying, its main characteristics, dependence on the communication situation. Mastering the emotional and expressive vocalism of native speech, the sounds of humming. Echolalia and echopraxia.

Baby babble, its phonetic richness and diversity. Babbling as a marker of a child's emotional state. Vocal evolution of the babbling period. The main phonetic characteristics of early babbling, its connection with rhythmic movements. Formation of the physiological mechanism of syllable formation, mastery of syllabic speech technique.

The period of babbling pseudowords. Development and change of babbling structures, features of their reproduction, the presence of formal similarity with the sound form of the word. The importance of imitation and reinforcement factors.

The period of late melodic babble. Complicating the child’s motivational sphere, understanding emotional melodic meanings. The appearance of pseudosyntagma, its connection with protosigns (gestures, facial expressions, vocalizations). The rise of modulated babbling monologues.

11.4. Mastering the sound form of a word.

“Sound gestures” as precursors of phonemes. Articulatory practice of a child: vowels and consonants of the babbling period (development of vocalism and consonantism), their difference from the first manifestations of child speech. Asystematic nature of sound combinations of the babbling chain. Development of coordination of acoustic and articulatory images, development of intonation structures of the language, formation of prerequisites for mastering phonemic hearing.

Education of the phonological system in children. The transition from the phonetic richness of baby babble to phonological restriction (R. Yakobson). The concept of differential phonological features of sounds, stratification as a systemic phonological phenomenon. Mastery of the system of phonological oppositions, their adherence to the principle of maximum contrast. The sequence of distinguishing sounds by ear. The problem of speech giftedness in preschool children.

Patterns of development of the articulatory side of speech production. The sequence of appearance of sounds of the native language in a child’s speech, analysis of the factors determining it. Mastering the system of phonological oppositions as the basis for the formation of conscious and voluntary articulatory movements.

Phonetic composition of the first words, features of their syllabic structure. Typology of speech errors characteristic of children's speech: omissions, substitutions, distortions of sounds in words. Modification of words with consonant clusters. Assimilation and metathesis as the most common types of changes in the sound combinatorics of a word.

11.5. Development of vocabulary in children's speech.

Transition to verbal speech technique. Characteristics of the initial children's vocabulary: the presence of babbling complexes in its composition, the use of onomatopoeic words and proto-words that have the status of verbal signs. The semantic stability of onomatopoeias and proto-words, their phonetic individuality, close connection with practical action. Dissociation in the development of a child's active and passive vocabulary. Generalization of linguistic phenomena as the main pattern of speech development.

The transition from onomatopoeic nominations and proto-words to normative words. The formation of nomination mechanisms, orientation towards the technique of designing linguistic forms by adults. Semantic and grammatical functions of children's nominations, patterns of their genesis.

The process of mastering the sign nature of a word: the formation of denotative and significative meanings. Formation of signification as a consequence of generalization of denotations. Characteristics of linguistic means of children's speech: determinism of the form of linguistic signs, occasional word formation, diffuse use of lexemes.

Peculiarities of children's interpretation of words, possible ways of their semantization. Direct and figurative meaning, development of verbal associations in childhood. Mastering lexical-semantic variants of words. Phraseologisms and proverbs in children's speech production. Unconscious metaphorization of a word, the origin of its aesthetic function.

11.6. Mastering the grammatical patterns of the language.

Practical grammar of children's speech, its difference from the grammar of adults (simplicity, universality, presence of active creative search). The process of mastering grammatical rules, their dominance in the creation of speech production.

Formation of morphological mechanisms of children's speech. The appearance of morphologically significant units, the presence of simple grammatical oppositions. Hierarchy of morphological categories acquired by children, the sequence of their formation. Typical cases of formative innovations.

Formation of word-formation mechanisms. Children's word creation as a special phenomenon of speech, its limitation by word-formation resources of the language. The process of mastering a word-formation model, its use to create new words. Word-formation innovations in children's speech.

Formation of syntactic mechanisms. One-word sentence period; a word as the equivalent of a whole statement. The beginning of combinatorial speech technique: the appearance of two-word sentences (proto-sentences) in the child’s speech production. Improving the semantic content of children's syntactic constructions.

Transition to multi-word statements: expansion of the repertoire of syntactic components of a sentence, complication of its hierarchical structure, use of means of expressing subjective assessment, development of methods for modeling a complex sentence. Typical cases of violation of syntactic norms.

11.7. Ontogenetic development of coherent speech.

Connected speech as an object of psychological and linguistic study, stages of its formation, changes in forms of connectivity during ontogenesis.

The phenomenon of egocentric speech, the concept of children's egocentrism in the studies of J. Piaget. Features of egocentric autonomous speech, its connection with subject-practical manipulations. The convergence of the concepts of egocentric and internal speech in the concept of L.S. Vygotsky. The evolution of inner speech, its psychological structure, patterns of functioning. Inner speech as an element of a complex mental structure that provides the most important mental functions (T.N. Ushakova).

Situational stage of development of children's speech, differentiation of situational and contextual speech, their genetic relationship. Structural originality of situational speech, its functional purpose, formal methods of expression. The transition from the exclusive dominance of situational speech to its contextual form (S.L. Rubinstein).

Mastering the technique of constructing a dialogue: exchanging replica statements, taking into account their meaningful and constructive connections, developing the ability to plan one’s own and predict others’ speech actions within the dialogue, focusing on the speech image of the communication partner, taking into account the interaction of communicants. The transition from spontaneous mini-dialogues to expanded forms of dialogic speech.

Monologue speech of a preschooler, its reproductive and voluntary phases. Mastering the technique of constructing a monologue: forming a holistic proposition, developing modal formalization of speech, gaining experience in communicative variation of statements, forming a repertoire of speech patterns, mastering various functional styles of speech. Indicators of integrity and coherence as the main parameters for assessing a monologue.

11.8. General characteristics of speech underdevelopment.

General speech underdevelopment as a special form of abnormal speech development. Violation of the main components of the speech-language system (phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical) in this form of speech pathology. The principle of a systematic approach to speech development as the basis for identifying speech underdevelopment and determining the methodology of correctional pedagogical influence (R.E. Levin).

The structure of abnormal manifestations in speech underdevelopment, the nature of their origin. Periodization of general speech underdevelopment (R.E. Levina, T.B. Filicheva). The main signs of general speech underdevelopment in preschool age, the specifics of violations of speech-language mechanisms that encode and decode speech messages.

Violations of the speech encoding process, their dependence on the state of semantic operations involved in the process of programming a speech utterance, the nature of its lexico-grammatical implementation, the degree of formation of the motor components of speech activity.

Violations of the speech decoding process, their dependence on the degree of decoding of the phonemic and phonological codes of the language, the specifics of the perception of verbal meanings, the level of understanding of the syntactic rules of their combination, the nature of the perception of the speech message.

Features of the mental activity of children with speech underdevelopment: immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere, decreased cognitive activity, persistent violations of voluntary attention, specificity of verbal and logical thinking, various types of behavioral disorders, difficulties in internal regulation (self-regulation) of productive activities.

Literature

Beltyukov V.I. Interaction of analyzers in the process of perception and assimilation of oral speech (in normal and pathological conditions). - M., 1977.

Belyakova L.I., Dyakova E.A. Stuttering. - M., 1998.

Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works on general linguistics. - M., 1963. - T.2.

BrunerJ. Ontogenesis of speech acts // Psycholinguistics. -M., 1984.

Vinarskaya E.N. Early speech development of a child and problems of defectology. - M., 1987.

Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech.-M., 1996.

Gvozdev A.N. Issues in the study of children's speech. - M., 1961.

Gvozdev A.N. Development of vocabulary in the first years of a child’s life. - Kuibyshev, 1990.

Gorelov I.N. The problem of the functional basis of speech in ontogenesis. - Chelyabinsk, 1974.

Gorelov I.N., Sedov K.F. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics.-M., 1997.

Greenfield P.M. Informativeness, presupposition and semantic choice in one-word utterances // Psycholinguistics.-M., 1984.

Children's speech as a subject of linguistic study. - L., 1987.

Children's speech: linguistic aspect. - St. Petersburg, 1992.

Zhinkin N.I. Mechanisms of speech.-M,. 1958.

Isenina E.I. Preverbal period of speech development in children. - Saratov, 1986.

Isenina E.I. Communicative significance of vocalizations in the preverbal period of speech development in children (comparative experimental study) // Structures of linguistic consciousness. -M., 1990.

Kasevich V.B. Ontolinguistics: typology and language rules // Language, speech and speech activity. - M., 1998.-T.1.

Kiryanov A.P., Radzikhovskaya V.K., Saenkova N.A. Cause-and-effect relationships in spatio-temporal and evaluative aspects (based on the material of children's speech) // Psycholinguistics and modern speech therapy / Ed. L.B. Khalilova. - M., 1997.

Koltsova M.N. A child learns to speak. - M., 1979.

Leontyev A.A. Research of children's speech // Fundamentals of the theory of speech activity. - M., 1974.

Leontyev A.A. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics. - M., 1997.

Lepskaya N.I. Child's language (ontogenesis of speech communication). - M., 1997.

Lisina M.I. Problems of ontogenesis of communication. - M., 1986.

The world of childhood. Preschooler / Ed. A.G. Khripkova. - M., 1979.

Negnevitskaya E.I., Shakhnarovich A.M. Language and children.-M., 1981.

Fundamentals of the theory and practice of speech therapy / Ed. L.E.Levina.-M., 1968.

Piaget J. Speech and thinking of a child: Trans. from French-M., 1994.

Problems of ontolinguistics / Edited by S.N. Tseytlin. - St. Petersburg, 1997.

Slobin D., Green J. Psycholinguistics.-M., 1977.

Slobin D. Cognitive prerequisites for the development of grammar // Psycholinguistics. - M., 1984.

Ushakova T.N. Ways of mastering the native language by a normal child // Questions of psychology, 1974, No. 1.

Ushakova T.N. Children's speech - its origins and first steps in development // Psychological Journal, 1999, No. 3.- T.20.

Ushakova O.S. Speech development of preschool children. - M., 2001.

Frumkina R.M. Psycholinguistics. - M., 2001.

Tseytlin S.N. Speech errors and their prevention. - St. Petersburg, 1997.

Tseytlin S.N. Language and the child: Linguistics of children's speech. -M., 2000.

Chukovsky K.I. From two to five. - M., 1966.

Shakhnarovich A.M., Yuryeva N.M. Psycholinguistic analysis of semantics and grammar (based on ontogeny). - M., 1990.

Elkonin D.B. Speech development in preschool age. - M., 1958.

Jacobson R. Language and the unconscious. – M., 1996.

12. Logopsychology.

Task: Familiarize students with individual typological signs of speech disorders of various origins.

The course is designed for 6 lectures and 2 practical lessons; Some questions of the course are submitted for independent study.

Forms of control: test.

12.1. Introduction to logopsychology.

Subject and object of logopsychology. Goals and objectives and content of the course.

Speech impairment as a complex entity is “a complex phenomenon of mental disorder” (A. R. Luria). The essence of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of speech disorders. Neurological, neuropsychological, Neurolinguistic, psychological, psychological and pedagogical aspects. Interdisciplinary object of study of logopsychology.

Principles of psychological analysis of speech disorders in children. Principles of development. The principle of a systems approach. Establishing the relationship between speech impairment and other components of the child’s activity. (R.E. Levina).

12.2. History of the development of logopsychology.

The stage of empirical study of the mental sphere of persons with different types of brain dysfunctions in the process of describing the phenomenology of speech disorders. The connection between psychological phenomena of disturbances in perception, memory, thinking, and the emotional sphere with nosological forms of speech disorders. Specificity of verbal behavior of persons with speech pathology of various origins.

The stage of scientific knowledge of speech disorders in persons with local brain lesions. Neuropsychological analysis of speech communication. The concept of a factor as a psychophysiological prerequisite for language acquisition and the functioning of language in speech activity. Speech-auditory, dynamic and acoustic-spatial factors. The essence of the method of syndromic analysis of speech disorders. Pathological system of different levels of speech organization. Impaired verbal communication. The nature of disintegration of the mental sphere. Personality change and personality response to speech impairment. Neurolinguistics. Features of speech communication of persons with aphasia.

The main syndromological forms of speech disorders in children. (according to R.E. Levina).

Characteristics of the current stage of development of logopsychology, an integrative field of knowledge in domestic and foreign science. The role of linguistic research in understanding the psychological structure of speech communication. Characteristics of cognitive processes, state of the emotional sphere and verbal behavior.

Current problems of logopsychology.

12.3. The problem of psychological classification of speech disorders.

Psychophysiological understanding of the speech functional system. Components of a functional system. Subsystem of acoustic speech analysis (recognition of phonemic composition, reception of intonation components, updating of rhythmic characteristics in memory, etc.), operative memory and its functioning. The meaning-forming link of the speech-thinking mechanism. System of verbal-figurative connections; their role in the process of perception and semantic processing of speech messages. A subsystem of motor structures that ensure the assimilation of linguistic codes and their functioning in the process of transmitting information by means of language. Types of pathological functional speech systems.

Classification of speech disorders according to psychological mechanisms (according to R. E. Levina, A. R. Luria). The main symptom complexes of speech disorders caused by the pathology of sensorimotor processes and operations of coding language as a sign-symbolic system.

12.4. Characteristics of perception in persons with speech disorders.

Perceptual organization of speech and mental activity. The structure of the psychological content of perception, the form of its flow. Disturbances of auditory perception in the structure of speech disorders.

Violation of visual perception in the structure of speech disorders. Disorders of the motor-perceptual organization of speech. Specificity of spatial perception in speech disorders of various forms. Impaired time perception.

12.5. Characteristics of attention in children with speech disorders.

The concept of understanding and its properties. Types of attention and their development in ontogenesis. Characteristics of the basic properties of attention in children with various forms of speech disorders (stability, concentration, distribution). Features of voluntary attention in children with speech disorders.

12.6. Features of memory in persons with speech disorders.

Mnestic systems as components of cognitive structures. Functional structures of auditory, visual, motor memory and their originality in various forms of speech pathology. Specificity of verbal memory. Involuntary and voluntary memory. Direct and indirect memorization. Features of episodic and semantic memory in speech disorders. Functioning of RAM in real communication conditions. Long-term memory. The structure of disorders of mnestic activity in various forms of speech disorders. Safe and broken links.

12.7. Characteristics of thinking in persons with speech pathology.

Features of thinking in various forms of speech pathology. Characteristics of visual and effective thinking of children with speech disorders. Visual-figurative thinking and the specifics of its functioning in various forms of speech disorders. Verbal-logical thinking in pathological conditions of development. Qualitative originality of abstract forms of mental activity at the nonverbal and verbal levels. Specifics of the dysontogenetic course of development of intellectual activity of children with speech disorders. Typology of intellectual activity disorders in adults with local brain lesions (according to L. S. Tsvetkova, I. T. Vlasenko).

12.8.Characteristics of communication in various forms of speech disorders.

Psychological structure of communication. Perceptual, interactive and communicative aspects of communication.

Development of communication in children with speech pathology. Features of situational-personal, situational-business, non-situational-cognitive, non-situational-personal forms of communication.

Means of communication and their development in children with speech disorders (linguistic, paralinguistic, extralinguistic). Interaction of means of communication in the process of dysontogenetic development of children with speech pathology. Features of adaptive-compensatory behavior in the process of communication in persons with various mechanisms of speech disorders.

12.9. Personality characteristics of persons with speech disorders.

Personality as a subject of psychological study. The relationship between the natural and the social in the structures of individuality and personality. The main constructors of personality and their dynamics in the process of dysontogenetic course of mental development. Personality changes in connection with speech disorders in adults and children.

12.10. Current problems of logopsychology.

Logopsychological differentiation of speech disorders, psychological diagnosis and correction.

Literature

1.Belyakova L.I., Dyakova E.A. Stuttering: Textbook. A manual for students.-M., 1998.

2. Vlasenko I. T. Verbal thinking of adults and children with speech disorders. - M., 1990.

3. Volkova G. A. Features of communication of stuttering preschoolers // Neuropsychiatric disorders in children.-L., 1989.

4. Mastyukova E. M., Moskovkina A. M. Fundamentals of genetics. Clinical and genetic foundations of correctional pedagogy and specialties. Psychology.-M., 2001.

5. Levinak R. E. Stuttering in children // Overcoming stuttering in preschoolers. - M., 1975.

6. Luria A. R. Language and consciousness. - Rostov-on-Don, 1998.

7. Tsvetkova L. S. Brain and intellect. - M., 1997.

8.Seliverstov V.I. Stuttering in children.-M., 1994.

9. Usanova O. N. Special psychology. - M., 1996.

10. Chirkina G. V. Early recognition and correction of deviations in speech development in children 2-4 years old // Problems of special psychology and psychodiagnostics of deviant development. - M., 1999.

11. Vish I.M., Tolmacheva I.S. Shiryaeva N.A. Personality features in the clinic of stuttering // Clinical and psychological study of personality. L., 1971.

12. Vlasenko I.T. Features of verbal thinking in adults and children with speech impairments. M., 1990.

13.Volkova G.A. Personal characteristics of 6-year-old children //Nervous-psychic and speech disorders. L., 1982.

14.Volkova G.A. Personal characteristics of 7-year-old children who stutter // Study of the dynamics of speech and neuropsychic disorders. L., 1983.

15. Raising an abnormal child in a family. M., 1965.

16. Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech.//Collected works. at 6t. Problems of general psychology /Under the editorship of V.V. Davydov. M., 1982. T.2.

17. Vygotsky L.S. Main problems of defectology // Coll. cit. in 6 volumes. Fundamentals of defectology / Edited by T.A. Vlasova. M., 1983. T.5.

18. Germakovska A. Correction of dyscalculia in schoolchildren with severe speech impairments. Abstract of thesis. ...cand. ped. Sci. St. Petersburg, 1992.

19. Glukhov V.P. Features of the creative imagination of preschool children with general speech underdevelopment // Underdevelopment and loss of speech. Questions of theory and practice. M., 1991.

20. Gumennaya G.S. Study of cognitive activity of children with speech underdevelopment // Theory and practice of correctional education for preschool children with speech disorders. M., 1991.

21. Grishin V.V., Lushin P.V. Methods of psychodiagnostics in the educational process. M., 199o.

22. Davidovich L.B. Sensory education of children of the third to fifth year of life in a multi-age kindergarten group. M., 1991.

23. Inyushin G.S. Some psychological features of stuttering preschoolers // Current problems of speech therapy. M., 1980.

24. Kalizhnyuk E.S., Sapunova S.V. On the issue of visual-spatial impairments and ways of their correction in preschool children with cerebral palsy // Defectology. M., 1980.

25. Kalyagin V.A. Basic properties of attention in adults who stutter // Study and correction of speech disorders. L., 1986.

26. Kovshikov V.A., Elkin Yu.A. On the question of the thinking of children with expressive (motor) alalia // Defectology. 1980.No.2.

27. Lalaeva R.I., Germakovska A. Features of simultaneous analysis and synthesis in primary schoolchildren with severe speech impairments // Defectology, 2000, No. 4.

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abnormal development of children. M., 1989.

29. Luria A.R. Fundamentals of neuropsychology. M., 1973.

30. Mayevskaya S.I. Basic principles of sensory education of children with severe speech impairments // Speech and voice disorders in childhood. M., 1973.

31. Martynova R.I. On the issue of mental development of children with motor alalia // Speech and voice disorders in childhood. M., 1973.

32. Mastyukova E.M. About violations of gnostic functions of students with severe speech disorders // Defectology. 1976.No.1.

33. Astkzhova E.M. About memory disorders in children with speech underdevelopment // Defectology. 1979.No.5.

34. Mastyukova E.M. On the development of cognitive activity in children with cerebral palsy // Defectology. 1973.No.6.

35. Romanova E.S., Usanova O.N., Potemkina O.F. Psychological diagnostics of the development of schoolchildren in normal and pathological conditions. M., 1990.

36. Semenova K.A. On pathogenetic therapy for disorders of motor skills, speech and intelligence in children with cerebral palsy. M., 1968.

37. Family and personality formation / Ed. A. A. Bodaleva. M., 1981.

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39.Usanova O.N. Special psychology. System of psychological study of abnormal children. M., 1990.

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