In the minds of people - readers and critics - of the 19th century, literature was given an important role in public life. Reading was not entertainment, not a form of leisure, but a way of understanding reality. For the writer, creativity became an act of spiritual and civil service to society; he believed in the effective power of the artistic word, in the possibility with its help to elevate the human soul, educate the mind and influence the socio-political situation.
From this faith was born the pathos of the struggle for this or that idea of transforming the country, this or that path of development of Russian life and literature. The 19th century was the heyday of Russian critical thought. The printed speeches of the best critics entered the golden fund of Russian culture and confirmed the high status of criticism as a special type of literature.
In the 1840s, two social movements arose - Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky) and Westerners (V.G. Belinsky , A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, N.A. Nekrasov). Westerners saw in the reforms of Peter I the beginning of the historical development of Russia, and in following European traditions - its right path. They were skeptical about pre-Petrine Rus', considering the lack of a rich ancient history to be an advantage of Russia: a guarantee of the rapid assimilation of the progressive ideas of Western Europe.
During these years, a radical movement emerged among Westerners, based on the teachings of the French utopian socialists - Saint-Simon and Fourier. At the apartment of M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky gathers a political circle, which includes young people passionate about socialist ideas. These meetings are also attended by writers, many of whom will later reconsider their attitude towards the Petrashevites - F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Maikov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin et al.
Utopian socialists saw the main social evil in inequality, in a distorted social order. The solution, in their opinion, was to re-educate the ruling class. The most radically minded part of this movement considered revolution as the only possible way of social transformation.
The Slavophile program for reforming Russia was based on the ideas of an independent path of development for a country with a history no less rich than the European one, independent of the West. “The Slavophiles considered the special, integral type of thinking, inherited from the Orthodox East and rooted in the deep layers of national life, as an indisputable advantage of Russian culture, requiring its development and improvement,” writes modern scientist Yu.V. Lebedev. The Slavophiles accepted the assimilation of the achievements of Western civilization only to the extent that this did not contradict the foundations of Russian culture. And if the West directs its concern for human life towards the improvement of external circumstances, then Orthodox Russia calls, first of all, for the moral improvement of man. European civilization, according to the Slavophiles, suffers from a spiritual disease of unbelief, individualism, deification of man and disappointment in spiritual values.
The divergence in views on the fate of Russia between Westerners and Slavophiles was also expressed in the different assessments that representatives of both philosophical movements gave to the work of N.V. Gogol. Westerners saw in this writer the founder of the social-critical trend in Russian literature, while Slavophiles emphasized a special element of the artistic worldview of the author of Dead Souls - epic completeness and high prophetic pathos. However, both of them recognized Gogol’s fruitful influence on the development of Russian literature as indisputable.
In the 1840s, a galaxy of word artists grew up, creatively developing the achievements of their older contemporary. The group of writers who rallied around Belinsky was called the “natural school.” The main object of depiction in their work was the “unprivileged” classes (janitors, artisans, coachmen, beggars, peasants, etc.). The writers sought not only to give a voice to the “humiliated and insulted”, to reflect their way of life and morals, but also to show the whole of vast Russia from a social point of view. At this time, the genre of “physiological essay” became popular, in which various social strata of Russian society were described with scientific rigor, thoroughness and factual accuracy (the best essays were written by N.A. Nekrasov, V.I. Dal, I.I. Panaev, D.V. Grigorovich, I.S. Turgenev, G.I. Uspensky, F.M. Reshetnikov, etc.).
By the beginning of the 1860s, the confrontation between Westerners and Slavophiles had almost exhausted itself: by this time the ideologist of Westernism V.G. Belinsky and Slavophiles A.S. had passed away. Khomyakov and P.V. Kireyevsky. However, there was still no unity in the views of the Russian intelligentsia on the main issues of Russian life. In the context of a changing historical situation (the rapid development of cities, industry, the improvement of the education system), new forces are coming into literature - commoners, people from different social strata (clergy, merchants, philistines, peasants, bureaucrats and impoverished nobility), who received education and broke away from the previous its environment. In criticism and literature, revolutionary democratic ideas laid down by Belinsky are being developed. Representatives of this movement put pressing socio-political issues at the center of their creativity.
The main platform for the revolutionary-democratic wing of Russian criticism was the magazines Sovremennik, Otechestvennye zapiski, and Russkoe Slovo. The philosophical foundations of a critical approach to works of art were laid in the master's thesis of N.G. Chernyshevsky “Aesthetic relations of art to reality.” Democratic revolutionaries viewed literature from the point of view of political and social significance; they treated literary text as a reproduction of life, and based on the analysis of the artistic image, they passed a harsh verdict on reality. This method of analysis is the young talented critic N.A. Dobrolyubov called it “real criticism.”
Didacticism in the perception of artistic creativity was not accepted by representatives of “aesthetic criticism” (V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, A.V. Druzhinin), who proclaimed the intrinsic value of art, its independence from social problems and utilitarian tasks.
“Organic criticism” sought to overcome the limitations of “pure art”, which solves exclusively aesthetic problems, and social determinism (the subordination of creativity to political ideas and public interests). According to its principles developed by A.A. Grigoriev, and then N.N. Strakhov, true art is born, not “made”; it is the fruit not only of the mind, but also of the artist’s soul, his “thought of the heart”; all aspects of human existence are reflected in it.
These ideas were close to the socio-philosophical movement, which was called “soilism.” Its representatives (A.A. Grigoriev, P.P. Strakhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.Ya. Danilevsky), developing the views of the Slavophiles, warned against the danger of being carried away by social ideas in isolation from reality, traditions, people, and history. Thinkers called for understanding Russian life, to comprehend the ideal embedded in the people's consciousness, in order to derive the principles of the organic development of the country. On the pages of the magazines “Vremya” and then “Epoch”, the “soilists” criticized the self-confident rationalism of revolutionary-minded opponents, and the viability of philosophy and art was determined by its connection with people’s life, Russian culture and history.
The soil scientists saw one of the main dangers in their contemporary reality in nihilism (from the Latin nihil - nothing). This phenomenon became widespread among young commoners in the 1860s and was expressed in the denial of established norms of behavior, art, religion, historical traditions, cultural values, recognized authorities and the dominant worldview. Moral categories were replaced by the concepts of “benefit” and “pleasure.”
A complex of spiritual, moral and social problems associated with nihilism is reflected in the novel by I.S. Turgenev’s “Fathers and Sons” (1861), which caused a heated discussion in the press. The main character of Turgenev's novel, Bazarov, who denies love, compassion, art and harmony, was enthusiastically greeted by D.I. Pisarev, a leading critic of the revolutionary-democratic magazine “Russian Word” and the main ideologist of nihilism. In the proclamation of the “godless freedom” of man, in the destructive passion of the new phenomenon, many thinkers saw a serious danger for Russia. In the literature of this time, a special genre of “anti-nihilistic novel” was developing (I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.F. Pisemsky, N.S. Leskov). The conservative magazine “Russian Messenger”, published by M.N., took an irreconcilable position towards nihilistic revolutionaries. Katkov.
In general, the literary process of the second half of the 19th century was marked by the development of the novel genre in all the diversity of its types: epic novel (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy), political novel (“What is to be done?” by N.G. Chernyshevsky), social novel (“The Golovlevs” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), psychological novel (“Crime and Punishment” and other works by F.M. Dostoevsky). The novel became the central epic genre of the era, most corresponding to the most important task that time set for the artist: to explore the complex interactions of man and the surrounding life.
After the Golden Age, having lost its dominant significance as the ruler of thoughts and feelings, poetry continued to develop powerfully and prepare the ground for new ups and downs. In the 1850s, poetry experienced a short but vibrant period of prosperity. The lyricist of “pure art” (A.A. Fet, Y.P. Polonsky, A.N. Maikov) gains recognition and fame.
Attention to folk life, history, and folklore, characteristic of literature in general, is also reflected in poetry. The main, key moments of Russian history received poetic interpretation in the works of A.N. Maykova, A.K. Tolstoy, L.A. Meya. Folk legends, epics, and songs determine the stylistic searches of these authors. The other wing of Russian poetry of the 50s and 60s (the work of the populists M.L. Mikhailov, D.D. Minaev, V.S. Kurochkin) was called “civil” and was associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The indisputable authority for poets of this movement was N.A. Nekrasov.
In the last third of the 19th century, the work of peasant poets I.Z. became a noticeable phenomenon. Surikova, L.N. Trefoleva, S.D. Drozhzhin, who continued the traditions of Koltsov and Nekrasov.
The poetry of the 1880s was characterized, on the one hand, by the development and enrichment of romantic traditions, and on the other, by the enormous influence of Russian prose, the novels of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky with their deep and subtle psychological analysis of human character.
The second half of the 19th century became the era of the formation of an original national drama. Widespread use of folklore, attention to merchant and peasant life, the folk language, interest in Russian history, social and moral issues, expansion and complication of the traditional genre range, a complex combination of romanticism and realism - this is the general character of the works of Russian playwrights of the second half of the 19th century - A. N. Ostrovsky, A.K. Tolstoy, L.V. Sukhovo-Kobylina.
The variety of artistic forms and styles of dramaturgy of the 2nd half of the 19th century largely predetermined the emergence at the end of the century of such innovative phenomena as the dramaturgy of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov.
1855 , February. Death of Nicholas I, accession to the throne of his son Alexander II.
1856 . The beginning of the expedition of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who for the first time scientifically explored the Tien Shan mountains.
1856. Founding of the Ust-Zeysky military post, since 1858 - the city of Blagoveshchensk.
1857. Founding of Maykop.
1858 , 16th of May. The Aigun Treaty with China, according to which Russia annexed the left bank of the Amur, and Primorye (the right bank of the Amur) remained in joint ownership.
1858 , May 30. Completion of the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg (Auguste Montferrand).
1858 . May 31. Foundation of the Khabarovka post in the Amur region - the future city of Khabarovsk.
1858 , June 11. Approval of the black-yellow-white banner as the state flag of the Russian Empire.
1859 , April. The entry of France and Sardinia into the war against Austria is the beginning of the unification of Italy. Main events: defeat of the Austrians at Solferino (24.6.1859); truce, according to which Austria ceded the Lombardy region to Sardinia (7.1859); annexation by Sardinia of the small states of Central Italy and part of the Papal States (by 3.1860); transfer of the border regions of Nice and Savoy by Sardinia to France (4.1860); landing of Giuseppe Garibaldi's detachment in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (6.1860); the defeat of the Pope's army by the Sardinian army and the occupation of most of his possessions (9.1860); annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to Sardinia (10.1860); proclamation of the Italian kingdom led by the Savoy dynasty (2.1861); Italian participation in the Austro-Prussian War, which led to the annexation of the Venetian region (1866); occupation of Rome and deprivation of the Pope of secular power (1870).
1859 , 25-th of August. The surrender of Shamil means the end of the annexation of Chechnya and Dagestan.
1860 , 2 June. Foundation of the Vladivostok post (since 1862 - a port, since 1880 - a city).
1860 , November 2. The Beijing Treaty with China, according to which Primorye was recognized as the possession of Russia.
1861 , February 4. The proclamation of the Confederate States of America was the beginning of the Civil War in North America (northern states against the slave-owning southern states), which ended in April 1865 with the defeat of the Confederacy and the abolition of slavery in the United States.
1861 , February 19. Alexander II signed a manifesto on the emancipation of serfs, according to which serfs partially received civil rights without land, until the full purchase of which they became “temporarily obligated.”
1861 . Creation of the secret revolutionary society “Land and Freedom” (self-liquidated in 1864).
1862 , summer. The creation of military districts on the western border is the beginning of military reform.
1862 , 8 September. Opening of the Conservatory in St. Petersburg - the first higher musical educational institution in Russia (A. G. Rubinstein).
1862 . The formation in St. Petersburg of a creative community of Russian composers who sought to embody the Russian national idea in music, known as the “Mighty Handful” (A. P. Borodin, M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, Ts. A. Cui, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov).
1862. Otto von Bismarck (from 1871 - Reich Chancellor of the German Empire, until 1890) became the Minister-President and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Prussia, who achieved the unification of Germany under the supremacy of Prussia.
1863 , January. Beginning of the Polish uprising, suppressed in 1864
1863 , June 18. The introduction of a new university charter, which expanded the autonomy of higher education institutions.
1864 , 1st of January. Establishment zemstvos – local unclassified self-government in rural areas .
1864 , May 21st. The suppression of the last center of resistance in the western North Caucasus is the end of the Caucasian War.
1864 , July 19. Publication of regulations on primary public schools, which stimulated the expansion of the network of primary educational institutions.
1864 , November 19. Introduction of a new charter for secondary educational institutions ( gymnasiums with in-depth study of Latin and Ancient Greek, real schools with in-depth study of “natural” disciplines - mathematics, physics, etc. .).
1864 , 20 November. Judicial reform, which introduced the lack of status of the court, adversarial process, transparency and independence of judges.
1865 , April 6. Adoption of a new censorship charter, which partially abolished preliminary censorship in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
1865. Founding of Elista.
1866 , April. The first unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (D.V. Karakozov fired a pistol near the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg, but missed).
1866 . Publication of I. M. Sechenov’s book “Physiology of the Nervous System”.
1866 . The first performance on stage of a work (“Overture in F major”) by P. I. Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers in the history of music (1840–1893).
1867 , March. Treaty for the sale of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska to the United States of America.
1867 , May 25. The second unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (former Polish rebel A. Berezovsky fired a pistol at the World Exhibition in Paris, but missed).
1868 . Establishment of a protectorate over the Kokand and Bukhara khanates.
1868 . Publication of the article “A device for studying the decomposition of carbon dioxide,” with which the scientific activity of K. A. Timiryazev, one of the founders of plant physiology, began.
1868 , January 3. The announcement of the Japanese Emperor to restore the fullness of his power is the culmination of the Meiji Revolution, which abolished the power of the Tokugawa shoguns - the beginning of the modernization of Japan and the creation of modern economic and political systems.
1869 , February. D. I. Mendeleev’s discovery of the periodic law, on the basis of which he compiled the periodic system of chemical elements.
1869 . The opening of higher women's courses in Moscow and St. Petersburg is the beginning of higher women's education in Russia.
1869 , October 12. Transformation of the Warsaw Higher School, established in 1862, into the University of Warsaw.
1870 . The beginning of the Franco-Prussian War, which led to the defeat of France and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, its declaration as a republic (III Republic, 4.9.1870) and the proclamation of the German Empire under the rule of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty (18.1.1871).
1871. Foundation of the city of Ivanovo-Voznesensk (since 1932 - Ivanovo).
1872 . The beginning of the first of four expeditions of N. M. Przhevalsky to Central Asia, during which new species of mammals were discovered.
1873 . Acceptance of the Khanate of Khiva under the protectorate of Russia.
1874 . The introduction of universal conscription is the completion of military reform.
1874 , spring. The beginning of “going to the people” is the populists’ attempts to conduct revolutionary propaganda among the peasants.
1875 . An uprising in the Kokand Khanate against Russian rule, which led to the abolition of the Khanate and the inclusion of its territory into Russia (19.2.1876).
1875 , 25th of April. An agreement with Japan, according to which the Kuril Islands went to Japan, and Sakhalin was recognized as completely Russian.
1876 . Re-creation of “Land and Freedom” as a populist organization. 1876 , 11th of March. Inventor P. N. Yablochkov received a patent for the “Yablochkov candle” - the predecessor of the modern incandescent lamp.
1876 , December 6. The first political demonstration in Russia (at the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg).
1877 , February. “The Trial of 50,” at which a group of Moscow revolutionaries, including P. Alekseev, was convicted.
1877 , 12th of April. Manifesto on the beginning of the war with the Ottoman Empire. Main events: the passage of the Russian army across the Danube (6.1877); occupation of Northern Bulgaria (7.1877); the beginning of the siege of the Ottoman fortress of Plevna (1st assault - 8/7/1877); defense of the Shipka Pass (8.1877); capture by the Russian army of the Kars fortress in the Caucasus (10.1877); capitulation of Plevna (11/28/1877); the passage of the Russian army through the Balkans and the attack on Istanbul (12.1877–1.1878); signing of the truce in Adrianople (19.1.1878); the signing of the peace treaty in San Stefano, according to which Southern Bessarabia, the Caucasian fortresses of Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and the port of Batum went to Russia, and the Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of Romania (it was given Dobruja - the area between the Danube and the Black Sea), Serbia (it was given region of the city of Nis), Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina (19.2.1878); The Berlin Congress (opened on June 13, 1878), at which the articles of the Treaty of San Stefano were partially revised (the territorial acquisitions of Russia were reduced - it was deprived of Bayazet - and Bulgaria - it was divided into two parts).
1877, October. The beginning of the “trial of the 193s”, in which many participants in the “going to the people” were convicted for revolutionary propaganda (1.1878).
1879 , April 2. The third unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (A.K. Solovyov fired five times from a revolver on Palace Square in St. Petersburg, but missed).
1879 , June. The split of “Land and Freedom” resulted in the emergence of “People’s Will”, whose goal was to provoke a revolution with high-profile terrorist acts, and “Black Redistribution”, whose supporters considered it necessary to continue propaganda.
1879 , November 19. The fourth unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (People's Volya blew up a railway track near Moscow, but the imperial train had already passed).
1880 , February 5th. The fifth unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (the People's Volunteer S.N. Khalturin carried out an explosion in the Winter Palace, but thanks to his delay, the emperor was not injured).
1880 , February 9th. Organization of the Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace, designed to ensure counteraction to terrorists.
1880 , October. “The Trial of 16,” at which some of the Narodnaya Volya members were convicted.
1881 , March 1. The sixth attempt on Alexander II and his death at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya. Beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander III.
1881 , March. The trial of the murder of Alexander II: the trial of its organizers (including S. L. Perovskaya and A. I. Zhelyabov) and their execution (3.4.1881).
1881 , April 30. The publication by the new Emperor Alexander III of the manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy,” which heralded the beginning of the “policy of counter-reforms.”
1881 , August 14. Publication of “Regulations on measures to preserve state order and public peace” to counter the revolutionary movement.
1882 , May 20. The final formation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), directed against Russia and France.
1882 , June 1st. The Law “On Minors Working in Plants, Factories and Manufactories,” which prohibited the work of children under 12 years of age and limited the work of children 12–15 years of age, was the beginning of factory legislation in Russia.
1883 , April 28. Official recognition of the trade white-blue-red flag as the “Russian flag”.
1883 , May 18. Establishment of the Peasant Land Bank to help peasants purchase land.
1883 , 26 of May. Consecration of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow (architect K. A. Ton).
1883 , September. Creation in emigration of the first Russian social democratic group “Emancipation of Labor”, headed by G. V. Plekhanov.
1884 , August 23. Introduction of a new university charter, abolishing the autonomy of universities.
1885 , March. Conflict with Great Britain due to clashes with Afghans in the Kushki region.
1885 . Populist Ya. V. Abramov’s promotion of the “theory of small deeds” in a series of articles in the Nedelya newspaper, according to which revolutionaries should abandon violent methods and engage in “simple honest deeds,” improving the situation in Russia with constant daily work.
1885 , June 3. Establishment of the Noble Land Bank to maintain landownership.
1885 , October 1. Entry into force of the law “On the prohibition of night work for minors and women in factories, factories and manufactories.”
1886 , June 3. The publication of a law regulating the relations between factory owners and workers.
1886 , november. Severance of relations with Bulgaria.
1887 , 1st of January. Termination of the collection of poll tax (partially retained in Siberia).
1887 , April. The trial of terrorists from Narodnaya Volya, who planned an attempt on the life of Alexander III on the anniversary of the assassination of Alexander II, and the execution of five of them, including A.I. Ulyanov (8.5.1887).
1887 , July 1. “Circular about cooks’ children,” which limited access to gymnasiums for the children of “coachmen, footmen, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like.”
1888 , September 13. Start of classes at Tomsk University - the first university in Siberia.
1889 , 28 January. The introduction of zemstvo district chiefs appointed by the administration, who replaced justices of the peace and received, in addition to the judiciary, significant administrative powers in relation to peasants.
1891 , May. Beginning of construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway - a strategic railway to the Pacific Ocean (completed by 1916).
1891 , August. The conclusion of a Russian-French alliance treaty directed against Germany.
1891 , autumn. The beginning of famine in a number of provinces of the Volga and Non-Black Earth regions.
1894 , The 20th of October. Death of Alexander III and accession to the throne of his son Nicholas II.
1895 , January 17. Policy statement of Nicholas II against the creation of an elected legislative body.
1895 , February 27. An agreement with Great Britain on the delimitation of the Pamirs, which completed the expansion of Russia's borders in Central Asia.
1895 , 11 April. Russian intervention in Japanese-Chinese relations (Japan was forced to return Port Arthur to China), which served as the beginning of Russian-Japanese contradictions.
1895 , 25th of April. Demonstration by A. S. Popov of the “lightning detector” he designed - the predecessor of the radio receiver.
1896 , 22nd of May. The consent of the Chinese government to the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) is the beginning of Russia's penetration into Manchuria.
1897 , 28 January. The first All-Russian population census (125,640,021 people recorded).
1897 , 2 June. Adoption of a law limiting the working day at industrial enterprises to 11.5 hours (came into force on January 1, 1898).
1897 , August 29. Financial reform of S. Yu. Witte, within the framework of which gold backing of the ruble was introduced, and the right to issue (issue credit notes) was transferred to the State Bank.
1898 , 1 -March, 3rd. I (organizational) congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) in Minsk.
1898 , March 15th. The transfer by China to Russia of the lease of the ports of Port Arthur and Dalny, which in 1895 were supposed to go to Japan, is an aggravation of Russian-Japanese contradictions.
1898 , August 17. Appointment of General N.I. Bobrikov as Governor-General of Finland, who began the policy of Russification of Finland.
1899 . The beginning of the “Boxer Rebellion” against foreign influence in China, in the suppression of which Russia, along with other powers, participated, while occupying Manchuria.
1902 . The creation of a party of socialist revolutionaries (SRs), based on the populist tradition and setting socialist transformations in the countryside as its main goal.
1903 . The Second Congress of the RSDLP, at which a split occurred into the Bolsheviks (V.I. Lenin and other supporters of the creation of a centralized, disciplined party) and the Mensheviks.
1903 , 2 June. Workplace Accident Victims Compensation Act.
1904 , January 27. The attack of the Japanese fleet on Russian ships in Port Arthur and Chemulpo (the death of the Varyag) is the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.
1904 , October. Physiologist I.P. Pavlov was the first Russian to receive the Nobel Prize “for his work on the physiology of digestion.”
1904 , november. Congress of opposition parties and movements in Paris.
1904 , november -December. The “banquet campaign” carried out by the liberal opposition, during which resolutions were adopted condemning the government, was the prologue to the revolution.
1905 , January 9. “Bloody Sunday” – the shooting of a workers’ demonstration in Petrograd – the beginning of the First Russian Revolution. Main events: strikes in different cities of the country in protest against the execution on January 9 (1.1905); the murder of the Moscow Governor-General, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, by a Socialist Revolutionary terrorist (February 4, 1905); Nicholas II’s consent to convene a Duma with legislative functions (18.2.1905); mutiny on the battleship of the Black Sea Fleet "Potemkin" (6.1905); manifesto on the convocation of the State Duma (6.8.1905); all-Russian political strike (10.1905); manifesto on granting democratic freedoms and giving the Duma a legislative character (10/17/1905); manifesto on the abolition of redemption payments for land - the end of the reform of 1861 (11/3/1905); armed uprising in Moscow and soldier riots along the Trans-Siberian Railway (12.1905).
1905 , February. The defeat of Russian troops in the decisive battle of the Russo-Japanese War near Mukden.
1905 , 14 -May 15. Complete destruction of the Russian 2nd Pacific Squadron in the Battle of Tsushima.
1905 , September. The signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty with Japan, according to which Russia lost Port Arthur, Far and Southern Sakhalin, as well as control over the southern part of Manchuria.
1905 , October. The founding congress of the party of constitutional democrats (cadets) is the organizational form of the liberal opposition.
1906 , April 27. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the first convocation, which began a policy of confrontation with the government and was dissolved in early July.
1906 , August 19. The law on military courts, which contributed to the speedy elimination of revolutionary unrest.
1906 , November 9. The law allowing the free exit of peasants from the community is the beginning of the Stolypin agrarian reform.
Khutor– a plot of land allocated from communal land, with a separate peasant estate .
Cut– a plot of land allocated from communal land without moving the estate .
1907 , February 20th. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the second convocation, which continued the policy of confrontation with the government and was also dissolved on June 3, 1907.
1907 , June 3. “The Third June Coup” - the adoption of a new electoral law, according to which the number of “state-minded” deputies in the Duma increased.
1907 , June 7. Founding in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of the outstanding physiologist V. M. Bekhterev, the world's first Psychoneurological Institute.
1907, August 18. The Russian-British agreement completed the creation of the Entente (the alliance of France, Great Britain and Russia against Germany).
1907 , Nov. 1. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the third convocation, which chose a policy of cooperation with the government.
1908 , October 15. The start of distribution of "Ponizovaya Volnitsa" - the first Russian feature film.
1908 , 17 October. Biologist I. I. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize “for his work on immunity.”
1911 , September 1. The murder of P. A. Stolypin is the end of the reform policy, which caused an increase in discontent among the liberal opposition.
1912 , June 23. Adoption of a law on compulsory health insurance for workers.
1912 , October 8. The beginning of the 1st Balkan War (Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece against the Ottoman Empire), which ended with the declaration of independence of Albania (11/28/1912) and the division of the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire between the allies, with most of Macedonia and all of Kosovo going to Serbia.
1912 , 15th of November. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the IV convocation, which continued the policy of the III convocation.
1913 , June 29. The beginning of the 2nd Balkan War (Bulgaria against Serbia, Greece, Romania and the Ottoman Empire), which ended with the partial division of Bulgarian lands.
1914 , April 17. The adoption of Tuva (Uriankhai region) under the patronage of Russia, the founding of the city of Belotsarsk - modern Kyzyl.
Section III
Recent history
Despite the factors hindering scientific progress and technology, the second half of the 19th century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers in Europe and North America, gave scientific reports, and published articles in scientific publications.
Capitalism, with its increased technical potential and the scope of industrial production, which required an increase in the raw material base, led to profound changes in the field of domestic science and technology. The general ideological atmosphere of the first post-reform decades, the democratic upsurge that shook the whole country, the ideas of revolutionary democrats about the enormous social role of science also contributed to the “extraordinary success of the mental movement” (K.A. Timiryazev).
The Academy of Sciences, universities, and scientific societies retained the importance of the main scientific centers. In post-reform times, the authority of university science grew. Large scientific schools arose here, and the works of some university professors received worldwide recognition. In the mid-60s, Sovremennik noted that “in many branches of science, representatives of our university scholarship are not only not inferior, but even surpass in merit the representatives of academic scholarship.”
New scientific centers arose in the country: “Society of Lovers of Natural History, Anthropology and Ethnography” (1863), “Society of Russian Doctors”, “Russian Technical Society” (1866). A serious contribution to the development of natural and social sciences was made by scientific societies that existed, as a rule, at universities. In 1872, there were more than 20 such societies in Russia, the majority of which arose in the second half of the 19th century. (Russian Mathematical Society; Russian Chemical Society, later transformed into a physical and chemical society; Russian Technical Society; Russian Historical Society, etc.).
St. Petersburg became a major center of mathematical research, where a mathematical school was formed, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P.L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.
In the second half of the 19th century. domestic science, based on materialistic and scientific traditions, achieved unprecedented success. The achievements of Russian science, associated with the development of world science, have greatly increased its international authority. “Take any book from a foreign scientific journal,” wrote K.A. Timiryazev in the mid-90s - and you will almost certainly come across a Russian name. Russian science has declared its equality, and sometimes even superiority.”
A.M. Lyapunov (1857-1918) created a theory of stability of equilibrium and motion of mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, which influenced the further development of world science.
It is also worth mentioning the first woman professor of mathematics S.V. Kovalevskaya (1850-1891), who discovered the classical case of solvability of the problem of the rotation of a rigid body around a fixed point.
The brilliant chemist who created the periodic system of chemical elements was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). (Appendix 2.) He proved the internal force between several types of chemicals. The periodic table was the foundation for the study of inorganic chemistry and advanced science far forward. Work by D.I. Mendeleev’s “Fundamentals of Chemistry” was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was published seven times during his lifetime.
Scientists N.N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A.M. Butlerov (1828-1886) - the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory of chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian organic chemists.
The founder of the Russian physical school A.G. Stoletov (1839-1896) made a number of important discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which gained recognition throughout the world.
From the inventions and discoveries of P.N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the most famous is the so-called “Yablochkov candle” - practically the first electric lamp suitable for use without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison A.N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for filament.
The discoveries of A.S. became world famous. Popov (1859-1905), on April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physical-Chemical Society, he announced his invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a “lightning detector” - a radio receiver, which very soon found practical application.
Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.
The founder of modern aerodynamics was N.E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921). He owns numerous works on the theory of aviation. The first research in the field of aero- and rocket dynamics by K.E. dates back to this time. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, founder of modern cosmonautics.
Of outstanding importance were the works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale; he was the first to indicate the ways of development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.
A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s he was working on creating an airplane.
The successes of the biological sciences have been enormous. Russian scientists discovered a number of laws for the development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology.
In 1863, the journal “Medical Bulletin” published the work of I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) “Reflexes of the Brain”, which laid the foundations of materialistic physiology and psychology, which was of great importance for the development of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. A major researcher, propagandist and popularizer of scientific knowledge, Sechenov created a physiological school, from which I.P. came out. Pavlov (1849-1936). In the 70s, his activity as a scientist-physiologist began.
I.P. Pavlov (1894-1936) - scientist, physiologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of regulation of digestion; the founder of the largest Russian physiological school made a huge contribution to the development of world science.
Russian natural scientists were convinced propagandists and continuers of the teachings of Charles Darwin. The Russian translation of his main work, “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,” appeared in Russia six years after its publication in England, in 1865.
Among the first Russian Darwinists was the founder of evolutionary plant morphology A.N. Beketov (1825-1902). The development of evolutionary teaching in Russia is associated with the name of I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) and A.O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), who convened comparative embryology. Mechnikov also worked in the field of comparative pathology, laid the foundations for the doctrine of immunity, discovering in 1883 the phenomenon of phagocytosis, the ability of the body's protective properties. Mechnikov's works were world famous. He was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Cambridge, worked at the Louis Pasteur Institute in France.
In the development of Darwinism and natural-scientific materialism in Russia, the merits of K.A. are especially great. Timiryazev (1843-1920), one of the founders of the Russian scientific school of plant physiology. He was a brilliant popularizer of science and did a lot to promote Darwinism. Timiryazev considered the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin as the greatest achievement of science of the 19th century, affirming the materialistic worldview in biology.
V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work “Russian Chernozem”, recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types.
The expeditions organized by the Russian Geographical Society to explore Central and Central Asia and Siberia by P.P. became world famous. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), N.M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), C.Ch. Valikhanov (1835-1865). With the name N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) is associated with discoveries of world significance in the field of geography and ethnography, which he made during his travels in Southeast Asia, Australia, and Oceania.
In the second half of the 19th century. In Russia, humanities scientists worked fruitfully in the fields of history, linguistics, literary studies, and economics, creating important scientific research.
I.I. did a lot in the field of philology and linguistics. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) - founder of the St. Petersburg school of Slavists. He wrote valuable works on the history of the Russian Old Church Slavonic language and the history of Old Russian literature. A major linguist and founder of the Moscow linguistic school was F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914). In the post-reform period, the beginning was made of the study of the work of A.S. Pushkin. The first scientific edition of the works of the great poet was prepared by P.V. Annenkov (1813-1887). He also wrote a number of studies devoted to his life and work.
Intensive work was carried out in the field of Russian folklore, and the collection and study of oral folk art expanded. The published works were extremely valuable for the rich factual material they contained. V.I. did a great job of collecting and studying folk art. Dal (1801-1872), who published the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” in the 60s, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day. In Soviet times, the dictionary of V.I. Dahl was reprinted several times. (Appendix 3.)
Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of Russian history. In the 50-70s. The talented Russian historian S.M. worked on the 29-volume publication “History of Russia from Ancient Times”. Soloviev (1820-1879). Based on vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.
Of great importance for Russian historiography was the emergence of the Marxist movement associated with the name of G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), theorist and propagandist of Marxist ideas in Russia. His first Marxist work, Socialism and Political Struggle, dates back to 1883.
IN. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) read the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with the economic-geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) paid much attention to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine with the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of “Russian history and biographies of its main figures.” Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the stunning successes of Russian science, leading it to a leading position in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westerners, who, despite the radical divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.
One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. The clash of historical views of Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, T.T. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev) and Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) with Over time, it developed into an irreconcilable ideological conflict.
Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe was at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and showing the way to the rest of humanity.
Slavophiles argued that there was no single universal civilization, and, therefore, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent, original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the “national spirit” that permeates all aspects of collective life.
Despite all their ideological differences, Slavophiles and Westerners unexpectedly agreed on practical issues of Russian life: both movements had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press and speech, and therefore were unreliable in the eyes of the tsarist government.
A distinctive feature of the scientific life of the post-reform era was the extensive social and educational activities of scientists, the popularization of scientific knowledge through public lectures, and the publication of popular science literature. At this time, the number of scientific and special periodicals increased (from approximately 60 in 1855 to 500 by the end of the century), and this growth primarily affected the provinces (instead of 7, about 180 scientific journals began to be published).
The development of science and achievements in the field of natural science have had a huge impact on social and cultural life. This was reflected in the literature, left its mark on the state of the school, and influenced, to one degree or another, the way of thinking and the level of public consciousness.
SOCIAL MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY
"Sixties". The rise of the peasant movement in 1861-1862. was the people's response to the injustice of the February 19 reform. This galvanized radicals who hoped for a peasant uprising.
In the 60s, two centers of radical trends emerged. One is around the editorial office of "The Bell", published by A.G. Herzen in London. He propagated his theory of “communal socialism” and sharply criticized the predatory conditions for the liberation of peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. Its ideologist was N.G. Chernyshevsky, the idol of the common youth of that time. He also criticized the government for the essence of the reform, dreamed of socialism, but, unlike A.I. Herzen, saw the need for Russia to use the experience of the European development model.
Based on the ideas of N.G. Chernyshevsky, several secret organizations were formed: the “Velikorus” circle (1861-1863), “Land and Freedom” (1861-1864). They included N.A. and A.A. Serno-Solovyevichi, G.E. Blagosvetlov, N.I. Utin and others. “Left” radicals set the task of preparing a people’s revolution. To achieve this, the landowners launched active publishing activities in their illegal printing house. In the magazine "Land and Freedom", in the proclamations "Bow to the lordly peasants from their well-wishers", "To the young generation", "Young Russia", "To the soldiers", "What the army needs to do", "Velikorus" they explained to the people the tasks of the upcoming revolution, substantiated the need for the elimination of autocracy and the democratic transformation of Russia, a fair solution to the agrarian question. The landowners considered N.P.’s article their program document. Ogarev “What do the people need?”, published in June 1861 in Kolokol. The article warned the people against premature, unprepared actions and called for the unification of all revolutionary forces.
"Land and Freedom". It was the first major revolutionary democratic organization. It included several hundred members from different social strata: officials, officers, writers, students. The organization was headed by the Russian Central People's Committee. Branches of the society were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov and other cities. At the end of 1862, the Russian military revolutionary organization created in the Kingdom of Poland joined “Land and Freedom”.
The first secret organizations did not last long. The decline of the peasant movement, the defeat of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland (1863), the strengthening of the police regime - all this led to their self-dissolution or defeat. Some members of the organizations (including N.G. Chernyshevsky) were arrested, others emigrated. The government managed to repel the onslaught of radicals in the first half of the 60s. There has been a sharp turn in public opinion against the radicals and their revolutionary aspirations. Many public figures who previously stood on democratic or liberal positions moved to the conservative camp (M.N. Katkov and others).
In the second half of the 60s, secret circles arose again. Their members preserved the ideological legacy of N.G. Chernyshevsky, but, having lost faith in the possibility of a popular revolution in Russia, they switched to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist tactics. They tried to realize their high moral ideals by immoral means. In 1866, a member of the circle N.A. Ishutina D.V. Karakozov attempted to assassinate Tsar Alexander II.
In 1869, teacher S.G. Nechaev and journalist P.N. Tkachev created an organization in St. Petersburg that called on student youth to prepare an uprising and use any means in the fight against the government. After the defeat of the circle, S.G. Nechaev went abroad for a while, but in the fall of 1869 he returned and founded the “People’s Retribution” organization in Moscow. He was distinguished by extreme political adventurism and demanded blind obedience to his orders from his participants. For refusing to submit to the dictatorship, student I.I. Ivanov was falsely accused of treason and killed. The police destroyed the organization. S.G. Nechaev fled to Switzerland, he was extradited as a criminal. The government used the trial against him to discredit the revolutionaries. “Nechaevism” for some time became a serious lesson for the next generations of revolutionaries, warning them against unlimited centralism.
At the turn of the 60-70s, largely based on the ideas of A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky, populist ideology took shape. It became very popular among democratically minded intellectuals of the last third of the 19th century. There were two trends among the populists: revolutionary and liberal.
Revolutionary populists. The main ideas of the revolutionary populists: capitalism in Russia is imposed “from above” and has no social roots on Russian soil; the future of the country lies in communal socialism; peasants are ready to accept socialist ideas; transformations must be carried out in a revolutionary way. M.A. Bakunin, PL. Lavrov and P.N. Tkachev developed the theoretical foundations of three trends of revolutionary populism - rebellious (anarchist), propaganda and conspiratorial. M.A. Bakunin believed that the Russian peasant was by nature a rebel and ready for revolution. Therefore, the task of the intelligentsia is to go to the people and incite an all-Russian revolt. Viewing the state as an instrument of injustice and oppression, he called for its destruction and the creation of a federation of self-governing free communities.
PL. Lavrov did not consider the people ready for revolution. Therefore, he paid most attention to propaganda with the aim of preparing the peasantry. The peasants had to be “awakened” by “critically thinking individuals” - the leading part of the intelligentsia.
P.N. Tkachev, as well as PL. Lavrov did not consider the peasant ready for revolution. At the same time, he called the Russian people “communists by instinct,” who do not need to be taught socialism. In his opinion, a narrow group of conspirators (professional revolutionaries), having seized state power, would quickly involve the people in a socialist reconstruction.
In 1874, based on the ideas of M.A. Bakunin, more than 1,000 young revolutionaries organized a mass “walk among the people,” hoping to rouse the peasants to revolt. The results were insignificant. The populists were faced with tsarist illusions and the possessive psychology of the peasants. The movement was crushed, the agitators were arrested.
"Land and Freedom" (1876-1879). In 1876, the surviving participants in the “walking among the people” formed a new secret organization, which in 1878 took the name “Land and Freedom.” The program provided for the implementation of a socialist revolution by overthrowing the autocracy, transferring all land to the peasants and introducing “secular self-government” in the countryside and cities. The organization was headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner et al.
A second “going to the people” was undertaken - for long-term agitation of the peasants. The landowners also engaged in agitation among workers and soldiers and helped organize several strikes. In 1876, with the participation of "Land and Freedom", the first political demonstration in Russia was held in St. Petersburg on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral. G.V. spoke to the audience. Plekhanov, who called to fight for land and freedom for peasants and workers. The police dispersed the demonstration, many of its participants were injured. Those arrested were sentenced to hard labor or exile. G.V. Plekhanov managed to escape from the police.
In 1878, some populists again returned to the idea of the need for a terrorist struggle. In 1878, V.I. (Zasulich made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov and wounded him. However, the mood of society was such that the jury acquitted her, and F.F. Trepov was forced to resign. Among the Land Volunteers Discussions began about methods of struggle. They were prompted to this by both government repression and the thirst for activism. Disputes over tactical and programmatic issues led to a split.
"Black redistribution". In 1879, part of the landowners (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deych, P.B. Axelrod) formed the organization “Black Redistribution” (1879-1881). They remained faithful to the basic program principles of “Land and Freedom” and agitation and propaganda methods of activity.
"People's Will". In the same year, another part of the Zemlya Volya members created the organization "People's Will" (1879-1881). It was headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, SL. Perovskaya, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others. They were members of the Executive Committee - the center and main headquarters of the organization.
The Narodnaya Volya program reflected their disappointment in the revolutionary potential of the peasant masses. They believed that the people were suppressed and reduced to a slave state by the tsarist government. Therefore, they considered their main task to be the fight against this government. The program demands of the Narodnaya Volya included: preparation of a political coup and the overthrow of the autocracy; convening the Constituent Assembly and establishing a democratic system in the country; destruction of private property, transfer of land to peasants, factories to workers. (Many of the program positions of the Narodnaya Volya members were adopted at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries by their followers - the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries.)
The Narodnaya Volya carried out a number of terrorist actions against representatives of the tsarist administration, but considered their main goal to be the murder of the tsar. They assumed that this would cause a political crisis in the country and a nationwide uprising. However, in response to the terror, the government intensified repression. Most of the Narodnaya Volya members were arrested. S.L., who remains at large Perovskaya organized the assassination attempt on the Tsar. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded and died a few hours later.
This act did not live up to the expectations of the populists. It once again confirmed the ineffectiveness of terrorist methods of struggle and led to increased reaction and police brutality in the country. In general, the activities of the People's Will significantly slowed down the evolutionary development of Russia.
Liberal populists. This trend, while sharing the basic theoretical views of the revolutionary populists, differed from them in its rejection of violent methods of struggle. Liberal populists did not play a significant role in the social movement of the 70s. In the 80-90s their influence increased. This was due to the loss of authority of the revolutionary populists in radical circles due to disappointment in the terrorist methods of struggle. Liberal populists expressed the interests of the peasants and demanded the destruction of the remnants of serfdom and the abolition of landownership. They called for reforms to gradually improve the lives of the people. They chose cultural and educational work among the population as the main direction of their activity. For this purpose, they used printed organs (the magazine "Russian Wealth"), zemstvos and various public organizations. The ideologists of the liberal populists were N.K. Mikhailovsky, N.F. Danielson, V.P. Vorontsov.
The first Marxist and workers' organizations. In the 80-90s of the XIX century. radical changes took place in the radical movement. The revolutionary populists lost their role as the main opposition force. Powerful repression fell upon them, from which they could not recover. Many active participants in the movement of the 70s became disillusioned with the revolutionary potential of the peasantry. In this regard, the radical movement split into two opposing and even hostile camps. The first remained committed to the idea of peasant socialism, the second saw in the proletariat the main force of social progress.
"Liberation of Labor" group. Former active participants in the “Black Redistribution” G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deitch and V.N. Ignatov turned to Marxism. In this Western European theory they were attracted by the idea of achieving socialism through proletarian revolution.
In 1883, the Liberation of Labor group was formed in Geneva. Its program: a complete break with populism and populist ideology; propaganda of socialism; fight against autocracy; support for the working class; creation of a workers' party. They considered the most important condition for social progress in Russia to be a bourgeois-democratic revolution, the driving force of which would be the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat. They viewed the peasantry as a reactionary force in society. This revealed the narrowness and one-sidedness of their views.
Promoting Marxism in the Russian revolutionary environment, they launched a sharp critique of populist theory. The Liberation of Labor group operated abroad and was not connected with the labor movement emerging in Russia.
In Russia itself in 1883-1892. Several Marxist circles were formed (D.I. Blagoeva, N.E. Fedoseeva, M.I. Brusneva, etc.). They saw their task in the study of Marxism and its propaganda among workers, students and minor employees. However, they too were cut off from the labor movement.
The activities of the "Emancipation of Labor" group abroad and Marxist circles in Russia prepared the ground for the emergence of the Russian Social Democratic Party.
Workers' organizations. The labor movement in the 70-80s developed spontaneously and unorganized. Unlike Western Europe, Russian workers had neither their own political organizations nor trade unions. The “South Russian Workers' Union” (1875) and the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” (1878-1880) failed to lead the struggle of the proletariat and give it a political character. The workers put forward only economic demands - higher wages, shorter working hours, and the abolition of fines. The most significant event was the strike at the Nikolskaya manufactory of manufacturer T.S. Morozov in Orekhovo-Zuevo in 1885 (“Morozov strike”). For the first time, workers demanded government intervention in their relations with factory owners. As a result, a law was issued in 1886 on the procedure for hiring and firing, regulating fines and paying wages. The institution of factory inspectors was introduced, responsible for monitoring the implementation of the law. The law increased criminal liability for participation in strikes.
"Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." In the 90s of the 9th century. There has been an industrial boom in Russia. This contributed to an increase in the size of the working class and the creation of more favorable conditions for the development of its struggle. Stubborn strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow, the Urals and other regions of the country acquired a massive character. Textile workers, miners, foundry workers and railway workers went on strike. The strikes were economic and poorly organized.
In 1895 in St. Petersburg, scattered Marxist circles united into a new organization - the "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Masses." Its creators were V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin), Yu.Yu. Tsederbaum (I. Martov) and others. Similar organizations were created in Moscow, Ekaterinoslav, Ivanovo-Voznesensk and Kyiv. They tried to become the head of the strike movement, published leaflets and sent propagandists to workers' circles to spread Marxism among the proletariat. Under the influence of the "Union of Struggle" strikes began in St. Petersburg among textile workers, metal workers, workers at a stationery factory, sugar and other factories. The strikers demanded to reduce the working day to 10.5 hours, increase prices, and pay wages on time. The persistent struggle of workers in the summer of 1896 and winter of 1897, on the one hand, forced the government to make concessions: a law was passed to reduce the working day to 11.5 hours. On the other hand, it brought down repression on Marxist and workers' organizations, some of whose members were exiled to Siberia.
In the second half of the 1990s, “legal Marxism” began to spread among the remaining social democrats. P.B. Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and others, recognizing some of the provisions of Marxism, defended the thesis of the historical inevitability and inviolability of capitalism, criticized the liberal populists, and proved the regularity and progressiveness of the development of capitalism in Russia. They advocated a reformist path to transform the country in a democratic direction.
Under the influence of “legal Marxists,” some of the Social Democrats in Russia switched to the position of “economism.” The “economists” saw the main task of the labor movement in improving working and living conditions. They put forward only economic demands and abandoned political struggle.
In general, among Russian Marxists at the end of the 19th century. there was no unity. Some (led by V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin) advocated the creation of a political party that would lead the workers to implement a socialist revolution and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat (the political power of the workers), while others, denying the revolutionary path of development, proposed limiting themselves to the struggle for improving conditions life and work of working people of Russia.
The social movement in the second half of the 19th century, unlike the previous time, became an important factor in the political life of the country. The variety of directions and trends, views on ideological, theoretical and tactical issues reflected the complexity of the social structure and the severity of social contradictions characteristic of the transitional time of post-reform Russia. In the social movement of the second half of the 19th century. A direction capable of carrying out the evolutionary modernization of the country has not yet emerged, but the foundations have been laid for the formation of political parties in the future.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.
Development of agriculture.
Development of Russian industry in the first half of the 19th century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology.
Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.
Exacerbation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. “The days of Alexander were a wonderful beginning.”
Peasant question. Decree "On Free Plowmen". Government measures in the field of education. State activities of M.M. Speransky and his plan for state reforms. Creation of the State Council.
Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.
Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. Balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I. Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of war. Results and significance of the war.
Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Alliance.
The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevism. Military settlements.
Foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the “Union of Salvation” and the “Union of Prosperity”. Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are “Russian Truth” by P.I. Pestel and “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. Uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The significance of the Decembrist uprising.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization and bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Intensifying repressive measures. Creation of the III department. Censorship regulations. The era of censorship terror.
Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "On Obligated Peasants".
Polish uprising 1830-1831
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Eastern question. Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in Russian foreign policy in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century.
Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. in Europe.
Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. Progress of military operations. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.
Annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.
The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.
Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.
Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs from the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century.
N.V. Stankevich’s circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen’s circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical Letter" by P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" by A.I. Herzen.
Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.
Peasant reform. Preparation of reform. "Regulation" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. Duties of peasants. Temporary condition.
Zemstvo, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The meaning of bourgeois reforms.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.
Industrial development. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology. The main stages of the development of capitalism in industry.
The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the 19th century.
Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the 19th century.
Revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the 19th century.
"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "People's Will" and "Black Redistribution". Assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of Narodnaya Volya.
Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. A work issue arises. Factory legislation.
Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the 19th century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.
St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".
Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.
Alexander III. Manifesto on the “inviolability” of autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.
International position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.
Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of Three Emperors.
Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the eastern question. Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, course of military operations. Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.
Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).
Deepening socio-economic crisis in the country, defeat in the Crimean War Crimean War (1853-1856, Also Eastern War- the war between the Russian Empire and the coalition consisting of the British, French, Ottoman Empires and the Sardinian Kingdom) caused the need for radical socio-economic reforms. The peasant reform of 1861 and the subsequent series of bourgeois reforms contributed to the gradual the transformation of an absolute monarchy into a bourgeoisie, a series of counter-reforms by Alexander III (1881-1894) failed to change this development.
The highest legislative body - State Council(in 1886, a new “Establishment of the State Council” was adopted, regulating its activities). State The council consisted of 5 departments: laws, civil and spiritual affairs, military affairs, state economy, industry, sciences, trade. Supreme judicial body - Governing Senate.
Since the autumn of 1857 a new government body began to operate - Council of Ministers(before him the Committee of Ministers). The Council included all ministers and other persons appointed by the emperor. In post-reform Russia, almost all ministries have significantly expanded their functions. His Imperial Majesty's Own Office lost its significance as the main government body, but continued to perform certain functions in the management system. The Council of Ministers operated until 1882.
In 1860, the State Bank was created, which was engaged in lending to industrial, trade and other activities.
The reforms have significantly changed War Ministry. Under him, the General Staff for Command and Control was formed, and the departments were transformed into main directorates, which significantly improved the state of affairs in all branches of the military department. In total, in Russia at the end of the 19th century. there were about 15 ministries and institutions.
Formation of all-class self-government bodies (zemstvos, city councils) in the 60s - 70s. XIX century. January 1, 1864 “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions.” According to the “Regulations” of 1864, zemstvos were all-class institutions. A wide range of residents were involved in solving local economic issues: representatives of the nobility, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and peasants (3 curiae). They elected for 3 years District Zemstvo Assembly, which met once a year in September. Executive agency – District zemstvo government–works on a permanent basis, headed by a Chairman and 2-3 deputies. Provincial government– Chairman and 5-6 deputies – the executive body of provincial self-government. All this made local government more flexible and mobile. But the nobles still predominated in the zemstvos. The abolition of serfdom deprived the landowners - the most reliable agents of the autocracy - of power over the peasants, and the government tried to transfer power to them through zemstvo institutions. The viability of zemstvos was also ensured by their self-financing. They received the bulk of their revenue from taxes on real estate: land, forests, apartment buildings, factories, factories. However, the main object of taxation turned out to be peasant lands. A favorable factor in the activities of zemstvos were the principles of self-government. Despite the tutelage of the bureaucracy, zemstvos themselves formed governing bodies, developed a management structure, determined the main directions of their activities, selected and trained specialists, etc.
According to the “City Regulations” of 1870, in cities non-estate self-government bodies were established: administrative - the city duma and executive - the city government, elected for 4 years by city tax payers, which included the owners of various commercial and industrial establishments, houses and other income-generating properties.
City councils were directly subordinate to the Senate. The mayor, being the chairman of the Duma, simultaneously headed the city government. In large cities he was approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, in small cities - by the governor. The functions of the new city government included taking care of the improvement of cities. They received the right to collect taxes from city real estate, as well as from commercial and industrial establishments. The activities of city self-government bodies had a positive impact on the development of cities, but also had significant drawbacks: a weak budget, predominant concern for the area where the city elite lived and the complete desolation of the working outskirts, and an indifferent attitude towards the poor.
Pre-reform court was class, dependent on the administration, there was no competitiveness, publicity, the investigation was in the hands of the police. All this gave rise to the possibility of abuse. Judicial statutes of 1864 were aimed at eliminating these shortcomings and provided for the introduction of the institution of jurors. The court in Russia was proclaimed speedy, just, merciful, equal for all subjects, with a respected and independent judiciary. The trial could only begin in the presence of a lawyer. Judicial statutes allowed cassation in cases of violation of legal proceedings or the emergence of new evidence in favor of the convicted person.
Magistrate's Court– a judge is elected by the population for a term of 5 years. Judges are divided into district judges - they have a place, a salary; and an independent judge - on a voluntary basis. They considered minor criminal cases (up to 2 years of punishment), civil cases (with claims of no more than 500 rubles). Once a year, a congress of justices of the peace was held to consider complaints against the justices of the peace themselves. They can be appealed to the Senate, which was the highest authority. The main authority is District Court– a judge is appointed by the Senate for life. The population elects judicial jurors (12+2 reserves) - this is a very democratic judicial reform. Trial Chamber– to appeal decisions of the District Court. As a result, Russia received one of the best judicial systems in the world.
Incompleteness of the reforms of the 60-70s. was, first of all, that economic reforms were not accompanied by political reforms, bringing the system of power and management in line with the level of economic development and the requirements of society.
The government's position was consistent with the basic principle of Russian conservatism: the state is the main force. The government pursued openly protectionist policies and a policy of strict financial control. The overall result of the audit of the reforms of the 60-70s. was the creation of administrative bodies for managing the village; minimizing the role of public self-government in zemstvo and city institutions, strengthening the control of the Ministry of Internal Affairs over them; restriction of the elective principle when filling positions; transfer of cases from judicial institutions to institutions that were in direct connection with the management administration. The adopted laws were supposed to return the nobility to its position in the management of the state and society, to preserve the class structure and autocracy of power. However, this did not happen. The spread of conservative ideas by their authors was exaggerated, and a complete turn back did not happen. Society did not allow it to be done, and even among the nobility itself, the tendency towards all-class status intensified.
Counter-reforms: 1) 1866. Zemstvos were prohibited from collecting taxes from industrial enterprises; 2) Censorship was introduced on the press of zemstvo institutions. The Governor's control has been expanded - a special presence in zemstvo institutions.
Urban reform of 1870–"Urban situation"– the population is divided into three categories: top taxpayers, middle ones, the rest – they elect the same number of deputies. Elected City Duma– city government body (for 4 years). Executive agency - "City Government", which is controlled by the Governor.
Assassination of Alexander II. His son, Alexander III, ascended the throne. Reforms of the 60-70s were not assessed unambiguously. There were two main assessments. Some believed that the reforms had gone too far, they threatened the foundations of the monarchy and they should not only be stopped, but also returned back to their original positions, restored “the way it was.” One of the main leaders of this movement surrounded by Alexander III was K.P. Pobedonostsev.
Another group believed and insisted that the reforms were not completed, they needed to be continued and expanded, first of all, to bring them to the reform of government bodies and public administration. Contemporaries associated this direction, first of all, with the name of M.T. Loris-Melikov, the last Minister of Internal Affairs during the reign of Alexander II. In the last months of the reign of Emperor Alexander II, he served as Minister of Internal Affairs with expanded powers and pursued a liberal internal political line. Enormous power was concentrated in the hands of Loris-Melikov, which is why contemporaries began to call this time the “dictatorship of Loris-Melikov”
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