20.09.2019

School hygiene. Subject and tasks of school hygiene

School hygiene*- represents the department of public hygiene, which has the task of protecting the health of students from the harmful influences that the school has; it teaches how to arrange school premises, how to adapt school supplies (classroom benches, blackboards, etc.), how to distribute classes, etc. In a broader sense, school hygiene * hygiene embraces concerns about the harmonious development of the body and spirit of children at school. To achieve these aspirations, among other conditions, it is necessary that home hygiene of students goes hand in hand with school hygiene. The Viennese doctor Frank is considered the founder of modern school hygiene*. After his work (Joh.-Pet. Frank, "System einer vollst ä ndigen medizinischen Policey", Mannheim, II vol., 1780), which appeared in 1780, a rather long period of stagnation began in this area; in 1836 the book “In Defense of the Health of Students” was published. The main works on the issues of school hygiene date back to the last 40-50 years, when studies by Parov and Meyer appeared on the mechanism of sitting, Farner on the reform of school furniture, Kohn on school myopia, and on air, Schubert on writing; later, from the 70s of the 19th century, they began to develop issues of mental and moral hygiene of students, teaching methods, and overwork (Kay, Kraepelin, etc.). In Russia, the first to take up school hygiene * hygiene in the 70s of the 19th century was a former Moscow professor; In addition to his own research, he also supervised many of the works of others, mainly zemstvo doctors (Zhbankov, Nagorsky, Zak, Starkov, etc.).

Massive studies of schoolchildren, carried out here and abroad, have undeniably revealed the fact that the school, mainly due to its unhygienic conditions, on the one hand, causes the development of some painful conditions in its pupils, on the other hand, it supports disorders of the body in which, however, cannot be considered the only culprit. The first group includes: lateral curvature of the spine, overwork - school illnesses mainly; to the second: digestive disorders, habitual, habitual, diseases of bones, teeth, ear, etc.; Some also consider swelling of the thyroid gland (goiter) to be a school disease. Finally, the school is an intermediary in the transmission and epidemic spread of many infectious diseases of childhood (scarlet fever, diphtheria, measles, whooping cough, mumps, scab, ringworm, etc.). Statistics show that School hygiene* incidence is very high. In Swedish higher schools, 55% were found sick and sick, and in community schools - 34-38% of all children, in Danish schools for boys 29%, for girls 41%. In Moscow city schools in 1889, out of 11,188 examined children, 5,081 (45.4%) patients were discovered; according to reports from St. Petersburg schools for 1890, 51% of boys were sick, 72.8% of girls; In the province, out of 6,000 public school students, 40.9% were found sick. However, not all so-called school illnesses can be attributed to the school. Thus, studies of 48,000 students carried out in Denmark showed that a quarter of sick children brought their illnesses with them from their parents' home.

Wed. Erisman, “Course of Hygiene” (vol. II, 1887); Yu. I. Zavolzhskaya, “School hygiene* hygiene” (St. Petersburg, 1898); N. P. Gundobin, “School Hygiene” (St. Petersburg, 1902); A. V. Nathanson, “School eye hygiene” (“Real Medical Sciences”, vol. XX, St. Petersburg, 1897); Uffelmann, “School Hygiene” (ibid., cited there); Baginsky, "Handbuch der Schulhygiene" (2nd ed., 1883); H. Cohn, "Lehrbuch der Hygiene des Auges" (1892); Burgerstein und Netolitzky, "Handbuch der Schulhygie n e" (2nd ed., 1902).

Represents the department of public hygiene, which has the task of protecting the health of students from the harmful influences that the school has; it teaches how to arrange school premises, how to adapt school supplies (classroom benches, blackboards, etc.), how to distribute classes, etc. In a broader sense, hygiene embraces concerns about the harmonious development of body and spirit children at school. To achieve these aspirations, among other conditions, it is necessary that home hygiene of students goes hand in hand with hygiene. The Viennese physician Frank is considered the founder of modern Swiss hygiene. After his work (Joh.-Pet. Frank, "System einer vollst ä ndigen medizinischen Policey", Mannheim, II vol., 1780), which appeared in 1780, a rather long period of stagnation began in this area; in 1836 Lorinser’s book “In Defense of the Health of Students” was published. The main works on the issues of hygiene date back to the last 40-50 years, when studies by Parov and Meyer appeared on the mechanism of sitting, Farner on the reform of school furniture, Kohn on school myopia, Pettenkofer on air, Schubert on writing; later, from the 70s of the 19th century, they began to develop issues of mental and moral hygiene of students, teaching methods, and overwork (Kay, Griesbach, Kraepelin, etc.). In Russia, the first to take up hygiene in the 70s of the 19th century was the former Moscow professor Erisman; in addition to his own research, he also supervised many of the works of others, mainly zemstvo doctors (Zhbankov, Nagorsky, Amsterdam, Zak, Starkov, etc.).

Massive studies of schoolchildren, carried out here and abroad, have undeniably revealed the fact that the school, mainly due to its unhygienic conditions, on the one hand, causes the development of some painful conditions in its pupils, on the other hand, it supports disorders of the body in which, however, cannot be considered the only culprit. The first group includes: myopia, lateral curvature of the spine, overwork - school illnesses mainly; to the second: digestive disorders, anemia, habitual headaches, habitual nosebleeds, diseases of bones, teeth, ears, etc.; Some also consider swelling of the thyroid gland (goiter) to be a school disease. Finally, the school is an intermediary in the transmission and epidemic spread of many infectious diseases of childhood (scarlet fever, diphtheria, measles, whooping cough, mumps, scab, ringworm, etc.). Statistics show that the incidence of Sh. is very high. In Swedish higher schools, 55% were found sick and sick, and in community schools - 34-38% of all children, in Danish schools for boys 29%, for girls 41%. In Moscow city schools in 1889, out of 11,188 examined children, 5,081 (45.4%) patients were discovered; according to reports from St. Petersburg schools for 1890, 51% of boys were sick, 72.8% of girls; in the Voronezh province, out of 6,000 public school students, 40.9% were found sick. However, not all so-called school illnesses can be attributed to the school. Thus, studies of 48,000 students carried out in Norway and Denmark showed that a quarter of sick children brought their illnesses with them from their parents' home.

School illnesses.

The development of myopia in schoolchildren was already noted by Lorinser in 1836. Research by Erisman, Koenigstein and others proved that in newborns the physiological state of the eye is farsightedness (hypermetropia); the same thing has been stated by numerous observations in relation to adult savages (Nubians, Laplanders, Kalmyks, Patagonians). Thus, myopia appears to be inextricably linked with literacy and is the result of studying small objects at close range. This is confirmed by statistical studies of students' eyes, now covering over 200,000 cases. Begun by Jäger in Vienna (1861) and Rüthe in Leipzig (1865), they were first systematically carried out on a large sample (10,000 students) by the Breslau ophthalmologist Cohn. Major work in this area is the research of Erisman in St. Petersburg (4368 students). The statistical data of these, as well as many other authors, lead to the following conclusions: 1) The higher the demands placed on the eyes of students, that is, the more extensive the training program and the longer the course lasts, the greater the number of myopic people. So, for example, Cohn determined the percentage of myopic people: in rural schools - 1.4, in urban primary schools - 6.7, in secondary schools - 19.7, in gymnasiums - 26.2, among university students - 57%; The Reich (Tiflis) found 10% of myopic students among urban primary school students, 25% in women's gymnasiums, 37% in men's gymnasiums; Lavrentyev (Moscow) studied 1900 students and found 28.5% in primary schools, 38.2% in secondary schools, 40.8% in higher education; Zemstvo doctor Khrushchev determined the percentage of myopic people in zemstvo public schools to be 5.6. 2) The number of myopic people increases in each given school from class to class. In one of the Breslau gymnasiums, Cohn determined the following percentages, from the junior to the senior class: 14%, 16%, 22%, 31%, 38%, 42%, 42%, 43%; Erisman found 13.6% in class I, 15.8% in class II, 30.7% in class IV, 41.3% in class VI, and 42.0% in class VII; Reich in the preparatory class - 12.8%, in the 8th grade - 71%; Lavrentiev among first-year students - 38.2%, in fifth-year students - 47.2%. 3) The higher the level of the educational institution and the older the students are, the higher the average degree of myopia. Kohn found the following degrees: in rural schools - 1.7 diopters, in urban primary schools - 1.8, in real schools - 1.9, in gymnasiums - 2.0, among students - 2.7; Conrad determined the average degrees of myopia in the 7th grade of Königsberg gymnasiums at 0.8, 1.0, 0.9, 1.0, 1.5, 1.7, 2.2 diopters.

Another Sh. disease, lateral curvature of the spine, school scoliosis is explained by the fact that when a child sits for a long time, especially on uncomfortable benches, his weak muscles become tired, the upper body falls forward, the right shoulder rises, the left lowered arm rests with the elbow on the thigh or, holding the edge of the table with the hand, rests on the bent upper abdomen. In this case, the spine in the area of ​​the scapula is bent in such a way that its convexity faces to the right and its concavity to the left (Fig. 1); in addition, the vertebrae rotate about their vertical axis to the right. This curvature is most pronounced when the vertical distance between the seat and the table board is very large, and thus the child is forced to raise his right arm at the shoulder joint while writing. Curvature of the spine, in addition to disfiguring the figure, has an adverse effect on the general state of health, because the chest narrows, the vital capacity of the lungs decreases, breathing speeds up and becomes more superficial, blood circulation is disrupted, and the body’s nutrition suffers. It is important that the teacher and school doctor pay attention to the beginnings of this disease, because only in the initial period can it be corrected. That scoliosis is a product of school is proven by its rarity in preschool age and the frequency of its development in schoolchildren. In 225 of the 300 scoliotics observed by Eulenburg, the disease developed between the 7th and 15th years of life, and 261 were female and only 39 were male. Lesgaft found 15-16% of children with spinal curvatures in secondary male educational institutions, and 30-35% in female educational institutions. Among 5,804 public school students examined by Voronezh doctors in 1897, 18.3% of scoliotics were found: boys 17.5%, girls 23.3%. School scoliosis, like myopia, progresses in parallel with the years of education, as can be seen from the Combe statistics for Lausanne schoolchildren: at 8 years old, the percentage of scoliosis in girls is 9.7%, in boys 7.8%; at 10 years old - 21.8% for girls, 18.3% for boys; at 13 years old - 37.7% for girls, 26.3% for boys. Most observers note the predominance of right-sided scoliosis over left-sided scoliosis (Fig. 2); for example, the Swedish scientist Kay counted 691 right-sided ones out of 751 curvatures. The higher incidence of scoliosis in girls is explained by their weaker muscles. In schools with poor furniture and insufficient lighting, Combe identified 28.2% of scoliosis versus 18% in relatively well-furnished schools.

SCHOOL HYGIENE. 1, 2 and 3. Curvature of the spine in school-age children. 4. Training table of the Kunze system. 5. Training table of the Erisman system. 6. Ackbrouth system training table. 7. Rettig system training table.

Overwork

students, which we called above as a school disease, still cannot be accurately defined and therefore continues to serve as a point of contention between various teachers and school doctors. The complex of symptoms denoted by this collective name is expressed by the development in schoolchildren of pallor of the general integument, loss of nutrition, weight loss, muscle lethargy, poor sleep, headaches, nervousness, nosebleeds, palpitations, digestive disorders; at the same time, a decrease in mental performance, weakening of attention, absent-mindedness, and sometimes a depressed state occurs. In 1897, Virenius, at an international congress of doctors in Moscow, put forward in his report four main reasons for overwork of students: the unhygienic structure of the school, the poor health and financial situation of students, the oppressive moral regime of our school and the discrepancy between mental activities and the strengths and abilities of students. The essence of overwork lies in the accumulation of toxic metabolic products in the blood, which lead to self-poisoning (autointoxication) of the body. Professor Mosso proved that the blood of an animal tired from work has known poisonous properties and, when injected into another animal that did not work, causes all the signs of fatigue in it, and the accumulation of carbonic and lactic acid is observed in tired muscles. From his observations of overwork in schoolchildren, Zach concludes that with excessive activity of the nervous system, a process similar to that described above occurs, which is also accompanied by increased formation of the mentioned acids. At the same time there is a rush of blood to the brain, as confirmed by Mosso's observations of one subject who had a hole in the skull. The dilation of blood vessels in the brain is accompanied by a corresponding contraction in the periphery of the body, which is why we often notice cold extremities in those overworked with mental work. The pulse becomes low, breathing slows down. This circumstance, due to prolonged sitting at work, especially with a bowed head, complicates the outflow of blood from the brain towards the heart. Thus, increased blood flow to the brain through the arteries and weakened flow through the veins leads to the accumulation of metabolic products, first in the active cells of the brain, and then in the blood of the whole body. These so-called extractive substances first cause stimulation of the central nervous system, and with further accumulation they cause its depression and other local and general symptoms of fatigue. Until now, however, we do not have a meter for overfatigue, especially in its initial stages, although an attempt to establish criteria in this direction has already been made. Mosso established that intense mental activity also responds to muscle fatigue, so that the latter, for example, lift a certain weight to a lower height; to measure these relationships, he uses an ergograph, where a weight thrown over a block rises evenly when the middle finger is bent - the result is noted on a writing instrument. Griesbach uses an aesthesiometer based on determining skin sensitivity using a Weber compass; the distance between the two legs of the compass is measured, at which both legs are felt separately by the skin - this distance increases at the same place with increasing fatigue. Research with these devices has shown, among other things, that ancient languages ​​and mathematics are more tiring than other subjects. Another way to study the degree of fatigue is to determine the quantity and quality of mental work that children can do at a given time. Similar experimental studies were carried out by Professor Sikorsky in 1876 using dictations, and it turned out that at the beginning of morning lessons, dictation gave 33% fewer errors than after 12 o'clock. Burgerstein used 4 series of simple addition and multiplication problems for 14- to 13-year-old students for the same purpose. In 1896, Ebbinghaus proposed to determine the effect of fatigue by assigning students a chapter of reading they understood in which syllables or entire words were missing and forcing them to fill in these gaps. Dr. Telyatnik conducted research on one-year-old students in St. Petersburg city schools and determined their ability for mental work using combined methods; for example, he forced the students to count the number of letters in five lines on a given page of a book or to repeat words and numbers read or written on the board by the teacher, etc. These psychophysiological experiments, carried out according to an extensive program, have already given very important practical results in the sense of distributing school activities on a strictly scientific basis, in order to avoid overwork. Thus, the need for a break between lessons, as well as a big break, was established experimentally; The best lesson duration is determined for the average age at 45 minutes. In Berlin, for the lower grades of primary schools, 6 half-hour lessons with 5-minute breaks are offered. Judging by Telyatnik's experiments, the ability to solve arithmetic problems improves after a big break, so it is better to schedule mathematics lessons after 12 o'clock; the same subjects that require memory, such as history, geography, dictation, are more appropriate to distribute in the morning hours. Students are especially tired of written work in the form of problems, translations, essays; in Austria they are allowed no more than once a day.

Psychophysiology, this relatively young science, is now actively working in the field of pedagogy. In 1893, the first scientific society of psychophysiology was founded in Chicago; since 1897 a special journal of educational psychology has been published in Germany; In Russia, since 1901, we have had the St. Petersburg Society of Psychophysiology. Over time, this science will give us the opportunity to more accurately establish the concept of overwork and determine the gradations of this Sh. disease. Until then, however, some of the symptoms we listed above cannot always and entirely be attributed to overwork, because other unfavorable factors in life may also play a role in their occurrence. Habitual headaches and nosebleeds are very common in school-aged children. Becker in Darmstadt examined 3674 pupils and found that 974 of them suffered from frequently recurring headaches and 405 from repeated nosebleeds; both phenomena become more frequent in high school; according to Kotelman, in the third grade of a Hamburg gymnasium, 19% suffered from headaches and 13% from nosebleeds, and in the last grade - 63% and 26%; Professor Bystrov determines the frequency of headaches in schoolchildren at 11%. The cause of these two sufferings must be sought in excessive blood supply (hyperemia) of the brain, its membranes and the nasal mucosa; this hyperemia may depend on intense mental work, but also on the action of the radiant heat of stoves, on stagnation of blood due to compression of the neck veins during prolonged sitting with the head tilted forward, the nasal mucosa may be irritated by inhaling dust, etc. Digestive disorders, expressed by poor appetite , pressure or pain in the epigastric region, constipation, are a common occurrence in schoolchildren and are explained by difficult blood circulation in the abdominal organs due to prolonged sitting in an uncomfortable position; In addition, their development can be facilitated by the fact that children, out of fear of being late for school, hastily swallow food without chewing it sufficiently, and during big breaks, dry eating is common in most schools, and just as hastily. The result of chronic digestive disorders, long stays in a stuffy classroom, and insufficient exercise in the open air is the development of anemia and nervousness in schoolchildren. The percentage of anemic children in schools is estimated by various authors at 25-30%. Nervousness, neurasthenia, manifested by increased irritability, sometimes depressed mood, intermittent pain in various parts of the body (for example, in the head), occurs much less frequently in the lower grades than in the older grades, which forces it to be brought into a causal connection with school. There is no doubt, however, that heredity and errors in home education play a role here, such as early drinking, early smoking, stimulation of the imagination by inappropriate reading, evening performances, and finally, often masturbation. Exams have a particularly harmful effect on the nervous system. Ignatiev made a series of observations on students 10 years old and older who lived in a boarding school during exam time; of 242 students, 191 (70%) lost weight during the exams, the average weight loss per student was 3 1/2 pounds; in special classes, where the duration of exams was 53 days (versus 22 days in the lower grades), out of 24 students, 22 lost weight, an average of more than 4 pounds. The same data were obtained by Binet in Paris, Ivlev in Bulgaria, and others. Of the nervous diseases, hysteria and Witt’s dance are often observed in schoolchildren, mainly in weak, anemic children with neuropathic heredity. Mental illnesses are not often found at school age, mainly during the onset of puberty in those who are hereditarily predisposed; The impetus for the manifestation of the disease is often mental fatigue.

The building must be built in accordance with all the rules of construction hygiene (see the corresponding article by Erisman in this dictionary). Sh. houses are still built mainly according to the corridor system, in which individual classrooms are adjacent to one middle or side corridor; Recently an attempt has been made, for example in Ludwigshafen, to divide classes according to the pavilion system. Stairs and corridors must be sufficiently light and, for fire safety, have a width of 1.6-2.0 meters; the rise of the stairs should be no more than 0.15 meters, the width of the steps from front to back from 0.25 to 0.3 m. The railings should be equipped with metal balls so that students cannot slide down them; In our cold climate, steps should not be open, but should be placed inside the building or at least under a roof, otherwise, when covered with snow, they become slippery and children are easily susceptible to falls. The facade of the building, according to Burgerstein, is best turned to the southeast in our latitudes, because then for most of the year three sides of the building are illuminated by the sun. Professor Erisman believes that the location of classrooms to the north or northwest is more favorable for the eyes of students, because it eliminates rapid and significant fluctuations in light. Local conditions play a big role in resolving this issue; with few sunny days during the school season, the northern position provides too little illumination of the classroom. Kohn stated in the Breslau real school that students could not read test type at a distance of 4 feet in a classroom facing north, and easily fulfilled this requirement, all other things being equal, if the windows were facing south. The school should be located away from factories, hospitals, market squares and generally noisy places. A position on an elevated place or in a square is very advantageous. The shortest distance from the nearest buildings should be equal to twice the height of the latter, in order to avoid darkening the classrooms. Classroom doors should not open directly onto the street or courtyard. Before the entrance to the building, as well as in the corridors in front of each classroom, rugs or wire mats are placed for wiping feet, because street dirt carried on shoes contains an abundance of pathogenic microbes and, when dried, is sprayed and mixed with the classroom air; in schools of the newest type (for example, Tenishevskoye in St. Petersburg), a second change of shoes is introduced in these types, left at school. Dress hangers should not be located in the classroom, so that the dust and moisture of the removed dress does not cause air damage; The way to the locker room should also not be through the classrooms. Each school should, of course, be supplied with good quality drinking water, which should be tested from time to time, especially in epidemic times; During cholera and typhoid epidemics, care should be taken to provide sufficient boiled water. Latrines should be located in a separate annex, connected to the school by a covered passage; In rural schools, a cesspool system is used almost exclusively: earthen, ash and peat closets are also suitable for them. It is necessary to ensure that exhaust air from latrines does not flow into corridors and school rooms. Of great hygienic importance is the installation of an open play area at the school, which in winter can be turned into a skating rink; For each student it is advisable to have a space of 3-4 square meters. meters; in small village schools the playground should occupy about 200 square meters. m. Where local conditions allow, it is useful to have a garden or vegetable garden at the school for work in the free air. To meet so many hygiene requirements, schools must be housed in their own buildings rather than rented ones. The construction of large school buildings has the advantage that they can be cheaper equipped than several separate small schools, better equipped with teaching aids, better arranged in terms of ventilation, heating, etc., but they have the disadvantage that, due to the accumulation of a large number students, contributes to the spread of infectious diseases; If it is necessary to close a school due to a school epidemic, again, a large number of students are deprived of education. Thus, in small towns and villages, preference may be given to small-sized separate school houses, where greater individualization of students and greater closeness between students and teachers are possible; but on the outskirts of large cities, where the poor family population is crowded together, one has to settle on the type of large school buildings. The distance to school should not be too great for students, otherwise physical fatigue from walking, as psychophysiological studies have shown, weakens mental performance; In addition, in cold climates, frostbite of the extremities is possible in winter.

Cool room

in size and shape must satisfy the conditions so that students sitting on the back benches, with normal vision, can clearly make out what is written on the board, so that all tables are sufficiently illuminated, so that the teacher’s voice is clearly heard by everyone and so that the teacher can follow order in the whole class. To do this, the length of the class should not exceed 10 meters, width 7.2 m, height 4.5 m; the most convenient shape for a small number of students is square or octagonal (Ferrand system). The walls of the classroom should be smooth to avoid accumulation of dust; It is best to paint them with oil paint up to a height of 2 m, the rest of the wall with glue; in the same types, the corners between adjacent walls, as well as between the walls and the ceiling, should be rounded. The color of paint used for walls should not be too dark or too light; Cohn recommends a light gray color for this purpose. The ceiling is painted pure white to provide reflected, diffused light. The floor should be well made of hard wood (oak) so as not to absorb dust and moisture; some recommend soaking it with linseed oil twice a year - before the start of school hours and in the middle of school time; the oil penetrates into the pores of the wood and almost does not accept dust. The arrangement of windows plays a big role, as it is related to the issue of classroom lighting. The windows are located on the left side of the students, because when the light falls on the right, the writer would darken the paper with his hand. Burgerstein recommends two-way lighting (right and left) as it provides a more even distribution of light and allows for quicker ventilation; during written work, which takes up only part of the class time, the windows on the right side can be closed with shutters; however, such an arrangement of windows is only possible in small school buildings, the width of one classroom. The front light is harmful to the eyes, as it dazzles, in addition, it does not illuminate the back desks much; the backlight casts too much shadow. Overhead lighting, which requires the installation of a glass roof, provides very advantageous, uniform illumination, but its installation presents significant technical difficulties and is only possible in one-story houses or on the top floor of a multi-story building; It would be desirable to have an overhead light, at least in the classes of drawing, drawing and women's handicrafts. It must be borne in mind that with overhead light the windows cannot be used sufficiently for ventilation. Regarding the size of windows, Cohn sets the requirement that the ratio of the window surface (minus frames and sashes) to the floor surface is 1:5. The extent to which our educational institutions sin in terms of lighting can be seen from Professor Gundobin’s table of the ratios of the light surface to the floor area in gymnasiums of various educational districts:

Warsaw 1:6.2 Riga 1:7.5 St. Petersburg 1:6.5 Vilensky 1:8.0 Kazan 1:6.5 West Siberian 1:8.0 Caucasian 1:6.5 Orenburg 1:8.1 Kievsky 1:6.5 Moscow 1:8.5 Odessa 1:7.0 Kharkovsky 1:8.9

In many zemstvo schools an even smaller light area was found (1:10-20). In the 70s, Erisman found 9% of windows on the right side in St. Petersburg gymnasiums. To distribute light evenly, the windows are arranged at an equal distance from each other, the partitions should be narrow and somewhat sloping towards the room; the upper edge of the window reaches almost to the ceiling, since remote parts of the room receive light precisely through the upper parts of the windows; It is better to make the upper edge of the frame horizontal, because rounded windows give in less light. The height of the window sills should be at least 1 m from the floor to protect children from falling outside the window and from unpleasant light falling from below. In our cold climate, we must also take into account the freezing of glass, which, according to Wolpert's research, weakens the light by 2/3 to 3/4; To eliminate this, it is recommended to place cups with pieces of calcium chloride between the double frames. To protect against excessively bright sunlight, windows should be equipped with curtains, which, according to Erisman, are best made from unbleached linen. To enhance daylighting in old, dark classrooms, Förster proposed installing large prisms in front of the windows, facing the refractive angle downward and, therefore, deflecting the rays of light upward; he proved that through such a system of prisms it is possible to intensify illumination by 1 1/2 times; such devices, however, are expensive (about 80 rubles per window). In England, on narrow streets, mirrors are used, installed at different angles in front of the window and reflecting light inward; mirrors are much cheaper than prisms (about 20 rubles per window). Cohn found that in this way the degree of illumination could be doubled. The minimum lighting for each school place should be 10 meter candles (see Lighting); Each student must see part of the sky from his place, namely at least 50 square meters. degrees. To determine the intensity of light, photometers by Weber, Professor F. F. Petrushevsky and others are used (see Photometry). Regarding evening, i.e. artificial, lighting of classrooms - see Lighting. Here we will briefly say that from the point of view of hygiene and eye hygiene, the best methods of illumination at present are electricity and Auer light, in which the flame of a gas burner heats white stockings made of material impregnated with thorium oxide. In 1882, the school hygiene commission in St. Petersburg recognized diffused light reflected from the ceiling and upper parts of the walls using an opaque reflector as the best evening lighting for classrooms; but since 50-60% of the light is lost in this case, a strong light source is required, such as electricity; a gas or kerosene burner of appropriate strength would heat the room excessively. Due to the fact that electricity is not available everywhere, you can use a combination of indirect and direct lighting; In this sense, Dr. Reich's lamp is very suitable.

Heating

schools are possible central and local. Of the various central heating systems, most hygienists consider the best to be low-pressure water, with free-standing cylindrical furnaces and continuous operation. Iron stoves are completely unsuitable for local heating, as they heat unevenly, cool quickly and have a harmful effect on health due to radiant heat and the products of organic dust particles burning on their surface. Therefore, among local heating systems, preference should be given to tiled stoves and, even more so, to the so-called shell or ventilation stoves; the latter must be arranged in such a way that a stone or metal channel is drawn from the outer wall under the floor of the W. room to the casing space. These stoves heat the room sufficiently and at the same time ventilate the room; the temperature is regulated by a movable valve, which must be handled carefully, since if the wind direction is unfavorable, the air flow may be distorted. For details, see Heating. The most suitable temperature for school rooms is 13-15° R.; Every classroom should have a thermometer and hygrometer to monitor temperature and relative humidity. Uffelman allows 75-40% relative humidity for schools, Koch 35-45% and, as a maximum, 50%.

The need for clean air in classrooms is clear to anyone who has experienced the feeling of physical malaise and mental lethargy when being in a room with stale, spoiled air, and then the revitalizing effect when you get out of there into fresh air. A growing child's body, in which metabolism occurs faster than that of an adult, needs clean air even more. Erisman sets the requirement that the volume of air in the classroom for each student in secondary schools should be at least 8 cubic meters. m, and in the initial ones - at least 5 cubic meters. m. According to research by the same author, out of 19 St. Petersburg gymnasiums, only 4 had satisfactory air content. Of the 75 educational institutions in Odessa, Kranzfeld found sufficient air content in only 35%. In zemstvo schools the situation is even worse; here, out of 621 classrooms, only 14% had normal air content, 56% contained about 1/2 of the normal volume and 30% less than 1/2 of the norm. The crowding of students in such close quarters very soon makes the air unbreathable. Air spoilage is caused by products of inhalation and skin evaporation. Inhaled air contains 0.04% carbon dioxide, exhaled 4.3% by volume; In addition, through breathing and evaporation, a person emits 2-4 pounds of water per day with an admixture of 0.5 spools of organic substances. The harm of spoiled air is caused precisely by the content of these organic products in it; but since the latter are difficult to determine, the level of air deterioration is measured by the content of carbon dioxide, which increases in proportion to the content of these substances. The normal carbon dioxide content in the air should not exceed 0.07-0.1% by volume; for schools 0.2% is allowed. Research by Professor Bubnov in 1885 in one of the Moscow city schools showed the following: in the morning at 8 o’clock carbon dioxide in the classroom was 1.46%, after the first lesson - 3.84%, after a long break (window open) - 1.69%, in the fifth lesson - 4.12%; At the same time, the air temperature increases (from 16° R. to 19-20° R.) and relative humidity (from 38% to 52%). According to the observations of Professor Verigo, in some educational institutions of Odessa after the 3rd lesson, carbonic acid turned out to be 4 1 Psychological encyclopedia

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Age physiology - a science that studies the characteristics of the human body at different age periods. She studies the functions of organs, organ systems, the body as a whole as it grows and develops, and the features of these functions at each age stage.

Subject The course of developmental physiology is the study of the physiological characteristics of children and adolescents in the process of their individual development, as well as the characteristics of the reaction of physiological functions to pedagogical influence. The functions of organs and their systems depend on their structure, therefore age-related physiology uses knowledge from other sciences: anatomy, human physiology, cytology, histology, etc.

Knowledge of age-related physiology is needed teachers (especially class teachers) to determine effective teaching methods, to develop methods for developing children’s motor skills and carrying out recreational work at school. Developmental physiology is important for understanding the characteristics of a child’s psychology at different stages of the body’s development. It helps to establish the stages of development of attention processes, information perception, and the formation of cognitive needs.

School hygiene- science about the patterns of influence of ped factors on the individual and collective health of children and adolescents. Based on knowledge of school hygiene, recommendations are developed on nutrition, daily routine and rest of students, and organization of the educational process. The basic principles of school hygiene are used in the production of school furniture and in the planning of educational institutions (features of lighting, water supply, heating, sewerage, etc.).

2.Children's health groups. First group - healthy children, with normal development and normal level of functions - children who do not have chronic diseases; those who were not ill or rarely ill during the observation period; having normal, age-appropriate physical and neuropsychic development (healthy children, without deviations). Second group - healthy children, but with functional and some morphological abnormalities, as well as reduced resistance to acute and chronic diseases; often (4 times a year or more) or for a long time (more than 25 days for one disease) sick (healthy, with morphological abnormalities and reduced resistance) This group includes children with the following health disorders: rickets, degree 1, deficiency or excess body weight, allergic predisposition, posture defects, etc. Third group unites children with chronic diseases or congenital pathologies in a state of compensation, i.e. with rare and mild exacerbations of a chronic disease without a pronounced disturbance in the general condition, well-being and behavior, as well as with functional abnormalities in only one system or organ . Fourth group includes children with chronic diseases, congenital malformations in a state of subcompensation, which is determined by functional deviations not only of the diseased organ or system, but also of other organs and systems, with frequent exacerbations of the underlying disease, with disturbances in the general condition and well-being after an exacerbation, with a protracted recovery period after acute illnesses. Fifth group – These are children with severe chronic diseases, severe congenital malformations in a state of decompensation, i.e., classified as a disability.

3.Stages of puberty.

Puberty is not a smooth process; it is divided into certain stages, each of which is characterized by the specific functioning of the endocrine glands and, accordingly, the entire organism as a whole. Stages are determined by a combination of primary and secondary sexual characteristics. There are 5 stages of puberty in both boys and girls.

Stage 1 - prepuberty(the period immediately preceding puberty). Characterized by the absence of secondary sexual characteristics.

Stage 2 – beginning of puberty. Boys experience a slight increase in testicular size. Minimal pubic hair. Ox wasps are rare and straight. In girls, swelling of the mammary glands. Slight hair growth along the labia. At this stage, the pituitary gland is sharply activated, its gonadotropic and somatotropic functions increase. Increased secretion of somatotropic hormone at this stage is more pronounced in girls, which determines the increase in their growth processes. The release of sex hormones increases, the functions of the adrenal glands are activated.

Stage 3- in boys, further enlargement of the testicles, the beginning of an increase in the penis, mainly in length. Pubic hair becomes darker, coarser, and begins to spread to the pubic symphysis. In girls, the mammary glands develop further, and hair growth spreads towards the pubis. There is a further increase in the content of gonadotropic hormones in the blood. The function of the sex glands is activated. In boys, increased secretion of somatotropin determines accelerated growth.

Stage 4- in boys, the penis increases in width, the voice changes, juvenile acne appears, facial hair, axillary and pubic hair begins. In girls, the mammary glands develop intensively and hair growth is of the adult type, but less widespread. At this stage, androgen estrogens are intensely released. In boys, high levels of somatotropin remain, which determines a significant growth rate. In girls, the somatotropin content decreases and the growth rate decreases.

Stage 5- boys finally develop genital organs and secondary sexual characteristics. In girls, the mammary glands and genital hair correspond to those of an adult woman. At this stage, girls' periods stabilize. The appearance of menstruation indicates the onset of puberty - the ovaries are already producing mature eggs ready for fertilization. Acceleration is Acceleration of growth and puberty in adolescents. Retardation – This is a later formation of the organ and its slower development.

Introduction

1. Hygienic requirements for the educational process

2. Hygiene of a schoolchild’s daily routine in the family, hygiene of rest, leisure, tourism

Conclusion

The beginning of the development of fatigue is indicated by: a decrease in labor productivity (an increase in the number of errors and incorrect answers, an increase in the time it takes to complete work operations), the appearance of motor restlessness, decreased attention, breathing problems, palpitations, and deterioration in well-being. Signs of fatigue appear later if the student is in favorable conditions.

A small physical load relieves these symptoms, so the inclusion of physical breaks in a school lesson is a prerequisite for hygienic standardization of the lesson and prevents the development of overwork. These can be simple exercises performed while sitting, or better yet, standing near a desk (stretching, bending, squats, breathing exercises) to relieve tired muscles.

The development of overwork is facilitated by violation of the sanitary and hygienic conditions of educational activities, and the discrepancy between the work and rest regime and the individual characteristics of children and adolescents. Currently, the maximum weekly teaching load is 20-25 hours in elementary school, 28-32 hours in middle school, and 31-36 hours in high school, depending on the length of the school week.

The optimal rhythm of work and rest, including active rest, is very important.

Table 1 – Curriculum of secondary schools in the Russian Federation.

Academic subjects	Number of hours per week by grade
	5 grades	6th grade	7th grade	8th grade	9th grade	10 grades	11th grade
Russian language	7	6	4	3	2	-	-
Literature	4	3	2	2	3	4	3
Mathematics	6	6	6	6	6	4/3	4
Story	2	2	2	2	3	4	3
Getting to know the world around you	-	-	-	-	-	-	2
Social studies	-	-	-	-	-	1	-
Natural history	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Geography	-	2	3	2	2	2/1	-
Biology	-	2	2	2	2	1	1/2
Physics	-	-	2	2	3	4	4
Astronomy	-	-	-	-	-	-	1
Drawing	-	-	1	1	1	-	-
Chemistry	-	-	-	3	3/2	2	2
Foreign language	4	3	2	2	1	1	1
art	1	1	1	-	-	-	-
Physical training	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
Labor training	2	2	2	3	3	4	4
basic military training	-	-	-	-	-	2	2
Music	1	1	1	1	-	-	-
Ethics and psychology of family life	-	-	-	-	1	-	-
Fundamentals of Computer Science	-	-	-	-	-	1	2
Total	30	30	30	31	32/31	32	31/32

An important role should be given to the individual biorhythm, which must be used as the basis for the daily routine of life. It is known that during the day the “peak” performance occurs at 9-12 and 16-18 hours. A slight discrepancy between the daily routine and the biorhythm is acceptable to train the body’s defense mechanisms.

When drawing up a lesson schedule, it is necessary to take into account the dynamics of schoolchildren’s performance during the day and school week. In younger schoolchildren, the highest performance is observed in the 1st and 2nd lessons, then by the 3rd and, especially, by the 4th it decreases. At the 5th lesson for the younger ones and at the 6th for the older ones, performance decreases by 50% compared to the first lesson.

At the same time, one should take into account the weekly, monthly, and annual dynamics of performance (increasing fatigue towards the middle and towards the end of the week, towards the middle and towards the end of the academic quarter, towards the middle and towards the end of the academic year).

Table 2 – changes in students’ performance during the week in points

The basic hygienic problem of a student’s educational activities is: standardization of the educational load; regulation of lesson duration and breaks; time and duration of holidays; quantitative regulations of lessons during the day and week and their optimal combination; reasonable alternation of work and rest; providing optimal conditions for study and recreation.

Dividing the school period of a child’s education into 3 stages (primary, middle and senior school) is certainly justified, but, in our opinion, it is necessary to highlight in the initial stage the period of greatest tension in the adaptation mechanisms of the child (especially a 6-year-old) to the conditions of systematic education (the first six months or a year). Here, the teacher’s skills in working with children or the lack thereof can play a positive or negative role, instill in the child interest or reluctance to learn, as well as strengthen the basis of health or weaken it.

An important role is played by the child’s inclination to learn, his abilities, his readiness, and his adaptation reserve. That is why in recent years preschool testing of children (along with health assessment) has been practiced to determine the level of development of speech, psyche, and motor skills.
For 6-year-old children, the duration of lessons should be set to 30 minutes and 35 minutes, respectively, in the first and second half of the year, and after 2-3 lessons it is necessary to conduct classes in the form of organized sports games and outdoor entertainment. In the middle of the third quarter, which is the longest and most tiring, it is advisable to take a week-long vacation. It is possible that a similar organization of educational activities is necessary for some 7-year-old children.

It is necessary to gradually form a new life stereotype, a school daily routine. On average, children's adaptation to primary school lasts 3-16 weeks. Completion of adaptation is characterized by stable functioning of body systems and successful educational work. In order to ensure the process of adaptation of children to the requirements of the school in the 1st grade, a “stepped” mode of educational classes should be used with a gradual increase in the teaching load: in September - 3 lessons of 35 minutes, from the 2nd quarter - 4 lessons of 35 minutes, from 2nd half of the year - in accordance with the maximum permissible weekly workload. For 1st grade students, additional weekly holidays are established throughout the year.

The hygienic requirements for the structure of the lesson are the same for all classes: the introduction of micro-breaks during the lesson, a gradual increase in the load to a maximum in the middle of the lesson and a decrease towards the end, termination of classes at the bell.

The duration of active attention in primary schoolchildren is limited in most cases to 15-25 minutes (15-20 minutes in the Tula region (Panfilov O.P. et al., 1995)), which requires switching to another type of activity.

Monotonous work is especially tiring for children, as well as work associated with prolonged psychophysical stress, visual stress, and maintaining a static posture.

The duration of continuous reading in elementary school is from 8-10 minutes (grades 1-2) to 15 minutes (grade 3), independent reading is preferably carried out at the beginning of the lesson or in the middle and alternated with retelling, listening to recordings, and talking with the teacher. For written work, the optimal duration is 3-5 minutes.

In middle and high school age, the academic load increases due to an increase in the number of lessons per day and academic disciplines, which increases the risk of developing overwork.

School hygiene is the science of protecting, strengthening and developing the health of the younger generation, children and adolescents.
School hygiene studies the developmental features and hygiene of the student’s body; the hygienic importance of natural environmental factors and their use for hardening schoolchildren; hygienic requirements for the school building and sanitary facilities in the school, for school equipment and teaching aids; hygienic principles of teaching and raising children; food for schoolchildren; prevention of diseases in school-age children. Knowledge of these issues is necessary for every teacher, since failure to comply with school hygiene requirements can disrupt the normal development of the child’s body and cause various diseases. Therefore, school hygiene is a mandatory subject of study in all pedagogical institutions.
School hygiene in its development is based on such sciences as physiology, chemistry, microbiology. School hygiene is also partly related to technical sciences, architecture and sanitary engineering. It takes into account the basic requirements for the design of school buildings and preschool institutions, for their external and internal design, including the artistic and aesthetic design of premises and equipment.
But architecture also receives from school hygiene data on the sanitary and hygienic requirements for school buildings, external and internal equipment. Sanitary engineering uses general school hygiene data to design sanitary installations in school buildings.
This essay discusses the 2 most important components of classroom hygiene - lighting and air-thermal conditions of the classroom. The abstract contains information that represents a synthesis of data from books of the past, the 20th century, and the latest information from 2002-2003. That is why the essay is of significant value for a teacher who wants to get acquainted with the requirements for lighting and air-thermal conditions of the classroom.
Hygienic requirements for classroom lighting

Among environmental factors affecting the body, light occupies one of the first places. Light affects not only the organ of vision, but also the entire body as a whole. The idea of ​​the integrity of the body, clearly expressed in the works of I. P. Pavlov, is confirmed by the reactions of the body in response to exposure to light. Light, acting through the organ of vision, causes excitation that spreads to the cerebral hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
Under the influence of light, the physiological and mental reactions of the body are restructured.
Numerous studies of the effects of natural light on the human body have established that light affects various physiological processes in the body, promotes growth, activates metabolic processes, and increases gas exchange.
The importance of light in the prevention of visual fatigue and the most common visual disorders, in particular myopia, is enormous, since it is in childhood that the refraction of the eye is formed, affecting the level of visual functions and visual performance. Therefore, optimal lighting conditions must be created in rooms for children and adolescents.
Unfavorable lighting conditions cause a deterioration in overall health, a decrease in physical and mental performance. Back in 1870, F. F. Erisman convincingly proved that the development of myopia in schoolchildren is a consequence of systematic strain on the organ of vision due to insufficient illumination.
Of particular hygienic importance is the bactericidal effect of ultraviolet rays, which are part of the spectrum of sunlight. Under the influence of ultraviolet rays, the development of bacteria is delayed, and with sufficiently long exposure, the bacteria die.
The role of the radiant energy of the sun is especially great in the formation of a growing organism. By activating metabolic processes, it promotes proper growth and development. Ultraviolet rays, transforming provitamin D found in the child’s skin from an inactive state to an active one, ensure normal bone formation. Light also has a psychological effect; the abundance of light creates an emotionally uplifted, joyful mood.
When choosing the orientation of child care facilities, solar radiation conditions are taken into account. The most favorable orientation in all climatic regions is southern and southeastern. With a southern orientation, insolation is longest in the autumn, winter and spring periods. When the rooms are oriented to the west in the second half of the day, the sun's rays penetrate deep into the room and cause significant overheating.
To eliminate the glare of direct and reflected glare during insolation in climatic regions II, III, IV, sun protection devices should be provided in the light openings of educational and production premises.
Despite the fact that window glass largely blocks the biologically most active rays of the solar spectrum, the tonic and bactericidal effect of the sun's rays penetrating into the premises is quite great. The intensity of ultraviolet radiation in a room increases with widespread aeration, so pharmacies should be installed in all main rooms of children's institutions.

Daylight

The level of natural light in the classroom primarily depends on the size of the windows. The larger their size, the more light rays penetrate into the room, the greater the illumination of the student’s workplace. It has been established that the area of ​​the glazed surface of a window in urban schools should be related to the floor area as 1:4 or 1:5. This ratio is called the light coefficient. In rural areas, where schools are usually built in open areas, the light coefficient can be 1:6. The upper level of the window should be located as close to the ceiling as possible (20-30 cm), since the places in the classroom farthest from the windows are illuminated by this part of the window. In this regard, it is unacceptable to install windows in schools with a semicircular top part or in the form of a triangle, since in this case the light-carrying part of the window is reduced. The lighting of the classroom depends on the size of the partitions between the windows, since student seats located opposite the wide partitions will not be sufficiently illuminated. Therefore, the partitions between the windows should be made as small as possible (from 30 to 50 cm). Classroom windows should not be obscured by opposing buildings. Houses located opposite school windows should be painted in light colors, preferably white. The furniture in the classroom should be positioned so that the light falls on the left side in relation to the students, since otherwise the shadow from the student’s hand while writing will obscure the notebook.
The listed requirements for natural lighting of school premises are taken into account during the construction of a school building and depend little on school employees. But there are a number of points that affect illumination and can be entirely carried out by teachers and other school employees.
The illumination of the classroom depends on the color of the walls, ceiling and furniture. Dark colors absorb a large amount of light rays and thereby reduce the level of illumination. The ceiling in the classroom should be painted white, the walls should be painted light (yellow, beige, light pink), the desks should be painted in light colors: the lids should be light green, and the sides and seats should be white.
Tall flowers located on window sills also reduce illumination. It is completely unacceptable to install special shelves-ladders in the window opening, which, together with the flowers, completely covering the window, darken the classroom. It is known that if flowers obscure even about 20% of the window opening, this leads to a loss of 15-22.6% of light in the classroom.
To create coziness and beauty, flowers are necessary in the school, but they should be placed on the wall opposite the windows, and large flowers on the floor so that they do not block the light.
Some classrooms and laboratories used to show educational films have blackout curtains. Teachers should be very careful to ensure that the curtains are raised above the top edge of the window after viewing, otherwise they will block the most light-bearing part of the window.
Dust on window glass also blocks light, which means it worsens the lighting. About 50% of light rays do not pass through dirty, dusty windows. Window glass must be smooth, since wavy glass, like dirty glass, blocks up to 50% of the light.
It is completely unacceptable to paint the glass with white oil paint or insert frosted glass, as is sometimes done in some schools, so that children do not look out the window and are not distracted from their studies. This is doubly harmful. Firstly, because the classroom will be darker (only 60% of the light passes through frosted glass), and secondly, in this case, students do not have the opportunity to rest their eyes. Academic work, as noted above, is associated with constant tension in the eye muscles. To rest your eyes, it is useful to relax your muscles by looking into the distance, into infinity. Students instinctively take their eyes away from the book from time to time and look out the window, but when the windows are painted over, they cannot look into the distance, since their gaze constantly encounters an opaque white surface.
To assess the level of illumination, a special device is used - a lux meter. In its absence, natural illumination can be determined in simpler ways. One of them is the following: if from the most remote place in the room the sky is visible throughout the entire window opening, then the illumination is considered good; if 2/3 of the window opening is satisfactory, and if the sky is visible only in 1/3 of the window, it is unsatisfactory.
There is another method. If a student with normal vision in a ventilated place can freely read the small print of a book at a distance of 50 cm from the eyes, then the illumination is considered to be sufficient. Both of these methods of determining the level of illumination can be easily used by the teacher.

Artificial lighting

To improve natural lighting on cloudy days and during second-shift classes, school buildings are equipped with artificial light sources. Artificial lighting in schools is usually electric, using incandescent or fluorescent lamps.
It must be emphasized that if the level of natural lighting in classrooms does not always depend on the teacher, then the sufficiency of artificial lighting depends only on the attention of school employees to this issue.
Compared to natural lighting, artificial lighting lacks a number of advantages (primarily the general biological effects) of sunlight. However, its influence on the visual functions and performance of students is quite large. It has been established that students' visual acuity is directly proportional to the level of lighting. When the illumination of workplaces is 100 lux, visual acuity does not decrease during the school day, whereas with an illumination of 50 lux, a slight decrease in visual acuity is observed by the end of the training sessions, and with an illumination of 30 lux, visual acuity sharply decreases already in the second and third lessons.
As the level of artificial lighting increases, performance increases.
Massive eye examinations of students have shown that there are more nearsighted children in schools with poor lighting than in schools with good lighting.
In order for artificial lighting not to contribute to a decrease in performance and not to impair the visual functions of students, it must meet a number of hygienic requirements.
The first hygienic requirement for artificial lighting is a sufficient level of illumination. The permissible hygienic minimum illumination for classrooms, laboratories and workshops is 150 lux for incandescent lamps and 300 lux for fluorescent lamps. To ensure this level of illumination in a classroom with an area of ​​50 m2 there should be 6-8 lamps with a power of 300 W each, that is, about 48 W per 1 m2. The highest illumination (200 lux) at the workplace is required in drawing and painting rooms.
In addition to general lighting, classrooms provide additional local lighting for blackboards, workstations in workshops, and tables in reading rooms.
Another hygienic requirement is the uniform distribution of light over the entire area of ​​the room. To create uniform lighting, it is necessary to place the lamps correctly. For this purpose, in a typical classroom of 50 m2, lamps are located approximately at the same distance from each other in two rows, four in each, the height of the lamps is at least 3 m from the floor.
The light coming from the lamps must be diffused, which is achieved by using special lamps that provide not only diffused lighting, but also eliminate excessive brightness. The use of open lamps in classes, when the light from a hot filament enters the eyes, is completely unacceptable. Such lighting, irritating the retina, has a harmful effect on the eyes, causing headaches and early fatigue. Therefore, different lamps are used.
In recent years, schools have begun to be equipped with fluorescent lamps, which have significant advantages over incandescent lamps. The light spectrum of these lamps is close to the visible part of the natural light spectrum; In addition, fluorescent lighting provides diffused light, is not very bright and does not create sharp shadows. Fluorescent lamps, unlike incandescent lamps, do not affect the air temperature, as they provide cool light. This circumstance makes it possible to provide a high level of illumination without increasing air temperature.
Hygienic studies of the effect of fluorescent lighting on the body of schoolchildren have shown that when the classroom is illuminated with fluorescent lamps, students’ performance is better than when illuminated with incandescent lamps.

Mixed lighting

Many people believe that mixed lighting is harmful to the eyes. However, this is not quite true. Mixed lighting consists of different wavelengths, this circumstance makes it less desirable than, for example, sufficient natural lighting. But it does not have a negative effect on the human body. It is harmful to perform visual work with insufficient levels of natural light, and in this case mixed lighting will favor visual functions. Therefore, you should turn on the electric light without waiting until it gets completely dark. In some foreign schools, artificial light is turned on automatically, using photocells, as soon as the lighting decreases to a certain level. This device is advisable, but even without it, if teachers are sufficiently attentive to protecting students’ vision, it is possible to ensure a sufficient level of lighting in the classroom in a timely manner.

Workplace lighting control

It is the responsibility of the teacher to control the lighting of the student’s workplace at home. The teacher should recommend the following to parents: the table at which the student studies should be placed near the window; the window should not be blocked by flowers, curtains or drapes. In order to provide sufficient artificial lighting at the student’s workplace, it is necessary, in addition to a general light source, to have a table lamp with a light bulb with a power of 50-75 W and always with a lampshade that covers the light bulb completely.
The color of the lampshade also matters. Maximum performance occurs with yellow-green or white light. Therefore, in a student’s workplace, the lampshade should be green or milky white. Schoolchildren should not be allowed to study with the general lighting turned off, when one table lamp is on, since a sharp transition of vision from a well-lit book or notebook to looking at dark objects in the room has a harmful effect on the eyes.

From the sanitary and epidemiological rules “Hygienic requirements for learning conditions in general education institutions,” which came into force on September 1, 2003.

Air-thermal regime

One of the most important environmental factors influencing the performance and health of children is the air-thermal conditions of the room.
In closed premises of children's and adolescent institutions, the temperature and humidity of the air increase during the stay of children in them. The chemical composition of the air changes due to the release of waste products, so-called anthropogenic emissions (exhaled air, intestinal gases, secretions from the surface of the skin). In addition, the air environment is polluted by the release of chemicals from finishing materials during educational and production activities. The biological properties of air (bacterial contamination) and ionic composition change (the number of heavy, positively charged particles increases).
The main source of microflora in rooms is the flora of the nasopharynx and dust. Studies conducted in schools have shown that the number of colonies in 1 m3 of air from the beginning of the school day to the end of the second shift increases by 6-7 times. Along with saprophytic microflora, it also contains pathogenic microflora.
The most effective way to combat bacterial air pollution in children's institutions is the sanitation of children's nasopharynx and dust control, which includes a number of measures for the improvement and sanitary maintenance of the building and site and personal hygiene (landscaping, wet cleaning of premises, cleaning and changing shoes).
An admixture of organic substances appears in the indoor air - ammonia, volatile fatty acids, hydrogen sulfide, which have an adverse effect on the body.
The ionic composition of the air changes because light ions are adsorbed by the respiratory tract, water vapor, and dust particles. Studies have shown that the amount of light ions in the air of classrooms is inversely related to the dust content of the air, its humidity and carbon dioxide content. With extensive aeration, a favorable change in the ionic composition of indoor air occurs.
As a result of the vital activity of the body, a significant amount of heat is released into the environment. According to the observations of many authors, the temperature in the classroom by the end of classes increases by 2.5-3.50C, and under unfavorable conditions (lack of ventilation) - by 4-60C.
It is customary to judge the quality of air in a room by the amount of carbon dioxide in it, since the content of the latter changes in parallel with changes in the chemical composition and physical properties of the air that occur due to exhaled air. Of course, the carbon dioxide content is only an indirect indicator of air pollution and does not always reflect the degree of its purity. In children's institutions, the CO2 content can remain low if there is significant dust and bacterial contamination of the air, contamination with emissions of various chemical impurities due to the use of modern construction and finishing materials.
However, even now, the carbon dioxide content in the air, together with the characteristics of temperature and air humidity, is widely used as an indicator of the air environment of enclosed spaces. Through observations, the maximum permissible concentration of carbon dioxide in rooms for children was established at 0.1%. This value formed the basis for calculating the required volume of air per child per hour and the subsequent approximate calculation of the air exchange rate in individual rooms.
In order to prevent changes in the physicochemical properties of air, air exchange should be carried out. When calculating the required volume of air per child per hour, it is customary to proceed from the amount of carbon dioxide exhaled per hour and its maximum permissible concentration in indoor air. The released carbon dioxide must be distributed in the air of the room and not exceed the maximum permissible content. The calculation is carried out according to the formula:
C=K: (P-q)
Where C is the volume of air needed by the child; K is the amount of carbon dioxide (m3) released by the child within an hour; P – maximum permissible carbon dioxide content in 1 m3 of air; q is the carbon dioxide content in 1 m3 of atmospheric air.
The amount of carbon dioxide released per hour depends on the age of the child and the nature of the work he performs. Preschool children exhale about 4 liters of carbon dioxide per hour, children of primary school age - 8-10 liters, senior schoolchildren - 10-12 liters.
Based on the maximum permissible carbon dioxide content in rooms for children of 0.1% and its content in the atmospheric air of 0.04%, we calculate the volume of air per one middle-age school child:
C=0.012: (0.001-0.0004)=0.012:0.0006=20 m3.
During physical work and outdoor games, 2-3 times more carbon dioxide is released, and the required volume of air also doubles or triples.
Changes in the physical, chemical and biological qualities of the air environment have an adverse effect on the body of children: performance deteriorates, headaches and lethargy appear. Chemical air pollution can cause toxic effects and allergies. The incidence of illness is increasing. Therefore, great importance is attached to sanitary and hygienic control over air quality indicators and the proper operation of heating and ventilation systems in children's and adolescent institutions.
The air temperature in rooms for children and adolescents should be differentiated depending on the purpose of the room, the building and climatic zone, the age of the children, etc.
No. Name of room Room temperature (t0)
Junior level Middle level Senior level
1 Classrooms, study rooms, laboratories
21-23
19-20
17-19
2 Training workshops 20-21 18-19 17
3 Training and sports halls 19 17 17
4 Doctor's office 22 22 22
5 Recreational premises 20 19 18
6 Lobbies 19 16 16
The optimal indicators for relative air humidity are 30-50%, air mobility - 0.06-0.25 m/s, acceptable: 25-60% and no more than 0.3 m/s. In playrooms and group rooms located on the 1st floor, the floor surface temperature in winter should be 230C.
In different climatic regions, when children and adolescents perform different types of activities, different levels of heat generation and heat transfer from the body are observed. Reading, writing, and quiet games of children are accompanied by a small amount of heat. In a room with high air temperatures, especially in combination with high humidity and low air speeds, heat transfer is difficult, which adversely affects the thermal state of children and their performance.
Children with poor health should exercise in a room with a slightly elevated temperature. Optimal indoor air temperatures can be reduced by hardening children.
To maintain optimal indoor microclimate conditions, various heating systems are used. The most widely used is low-pressure central water heating with a coolant water temperature of 850C for preschool institutions, and 95% for schools and other educational institutions.
With water heating, heating devices (convectors, radiators) give off heat to the room air washing them, while the temperature of the walls remains low and causes negative radiation, that is, heat loss from the body through radiation.
Radiant heating systems (or panel heating) are pipes or channels enclosed in enclosing structures through which heated water or air circulates. In this case, the heat-transmitting surfaces can be the floor and ceiling or walls of the room.
The radiant heating system has a number of advantages: uniform air temperature in the room, no burning of dust, the ability to better ventilate rooms, since the thermal comfort of children is ensured at a lower air temperature. To ensure the optimal thermal condition of children, it is recommended that the heating temperature of floor panels in children's institutions in primary school premises should not exceed 240C, ceilings - 280C, walls - 30-350C.
Recently, air heating has become widespread in school buildings. With this system, outside air enters the air intake shaft, then into the supply shaft, then into the supply chamber, after which it is subjected to conditioning (heating, cleaning and humidification) and through the supply openings is supplied to the classrooms in the amount of 16 m3/h per student . The temperature of the air torch should not exceed 400C.
At the same time, natural exhaust ventilation is provided from educational premises through recreation areas, followed by exhaust from sanitary facilities. In schools of small capacity in rural areas, stove heating is allowed. In this case, the following conditions must be met: ensuring a standardized level of air heating, daily temperature fluctuations of no more than 30C, heating of the furnace surface no higher than 900C, location of fireboxes and valves outside the classroom.
Ventilation ensures the influx of clean air and the removal of polluted air, helping to maintain optimal microclimatic conditions and air purity in the premises.
Natural ventilation involves the entry of outside air under the influence of heat or wind pressure and the removal of contaminated air through exhaust ducts. The air flow is through the transoms. The correct design of the transom is when the outer sash opens outward on hinges fixed in the upper part of the transom, and the inner sash opens inward on hinges fixed in the lower part of the transom. With this transom design, the outside air is directed to the ceiling and enters the children’s area already heated, without causing them to cool down. In the warm and transitional seasons, aeration of premises can be carried out continuously in the presence of children. To ensure sufficient air flow, the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of the transom and the floor must be at least 1:50.

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