Systemic qualities of a person. Constructing an image of a situation based on a story is realized with... imagination. The sensory tissue of consciousness contains

The most common concept in psychology is Human- a certain biological creature with articulate speech, consciousness, the ability to create tools and use them, etc.

Human development is impossible without the active transmission of human culture to new generations.

Individual- an individual representative of the human race has a similar name in psychology.

An individual is a biological organism, a bearer of the general hypothetical hereditary properties of a given biological species.

Among these concepts, personality is a narrower concept and emphasizes the social essence of a person.

Personality in psychology- a systemic social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the level and quality of representation of social relations in the individual.

Sensitive periods are the most favorable for the development of certain functions.

Leontyev A.N.: The 1st birth of the personality is at 3 years old, the 2nd birth of the personality occurs in adolescence (from 12 years old) - the need arises to satisfy one’s new needs.

The concepts of personality and individuality are close in meaning. Individuality is one of the aspects of personality.

Individuality- a combination of psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality and his difference from other people.

Individuality is manifested in traits of temperament, character, habits, and in the quality of cognitive processes (i.e., thinking, memory, imagination, etc.).

Criteria for determining personality:

1. A person with a certain fairly high level of mental development.

2. The ability to overcome immediate impulses for the sake of something else, socially significant.

3. The ability to consciously manage one’s own behavior.

4. The ability to assess the consequences of a decision and the ability to be responsible for them to oneself and the society in which one lives.

5. The ability to dominate chance and change the circumstances of life in accordance with your goals and objectives.

6. Ability for self-improvement.

Personality receives its structure from the specific structure of human activity and is therefore characterized by five potentials:

1. Epistemological (cognitive) potential determined by the volume and quality of information available to the individual.

2. Axiological (value) potential is determined by the system of value orientations acquired by the personality in the process of socialization in the moral, political, religious, aesthetic spheres, i.e. ideals, life goals, beliefs and aspirations.

3. Creative potential is determined by the individual’s acquired and independently developed skills and abilities, abilities to act creatively or destructively, productively or reproductively, and the extent of their implementation in one or another area (or several areas) of labor, social-organizational and critical activity.

4. Communication potential is determined by the measure and forms of a person’s sociability, the nature and strength of the contacts he establishes with other people.

5. Artistic potential determined by the level, content, intensity of the artistic needs of the individual and how she satisfies them.

Topic 2.7. Personality and its socialization.

Plan

1. The concept of personality. Basic theories of personality.

2. Personality structure. Personal self-awareness. Personality formation.

3. Socialization and its main characteristics.

4. The concept of social behavior. Prosocial and antisocial behavior. Aggression and regulation of social behavior

1. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Activity and personality psychology. –– M.: Nauka, 1980.–– P. 113-185, 210-259.

2. Averin V.A. Personality psychology: Textbook. –– St. Petersburg: Publishing house of Mikhailov V.A., 1999. –– 89 p.

3. Asmolov A.G. Personality psychology: Principles of general psychological analysis: Textbook. –– M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1990. –– P. 7-363.

4. Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication: Selected psychological works. –– 2nd ed., revised. –– M.: International Pedagogical Academy, 1995 – P. 5-20.

5. Bodalev A.A. Psychology about personality. –– M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1988. –– P. 5-11, 37-59.

6. Bozhovich L.I. Personality and its formation in childhood. –– M.: Education, 1982. –– P. 39-123.

7. Zeigarnik B.V. Theories of personality in foreign psychology. –– M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1982.–– P. 6-97.

8. Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. –– M.: Nauka, 1982. –– P. 86-135.

9. Merlin V.S. Personality structure. Character, abilities, self-awareness. Textbook for the special course. –– Perm: University Publishing House, 1990. –– P.81-108.

10. Orlov A.B. Personality and essence: the external and internal “I” of a person. //Questions of psychology. –– 1995. –– No. 2. –– P. 5 - 19.

11. Psychology of individual differences. Texts.–– M: Pedagogy, 1982.–– P. 179-218.

12. Personality psychology. Texts. –– M: Pedagogy, 1982.–– P. 11-19, 39-41.

13. Psychology of the developing personality / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. –– M.: Pedagogy, 1987.–– P. 10-105.

The concept of personality. Basic theories of personality.

A person as a subject of social relations, a bearer of socially significant qualities is personality.

Personality is a systemic social quality of an individual, formed in joint activity and communication.

Along with the concept of personality, we also use such terms as person, individual and individuality. All these concepts have specifics, but they are interconnected:

Man is the most general, integrative concept. It means a being that embodies the highest degree of development of life, a product of social and labor processes, an indissoluble unity of the natural and the social. But, carrying within himself a social-tribal essence, each person is a single natural being, an individual;

An individual is a specific person as a representative of the genus Homo sapiens, the bearer of the prerequisites (inclinations) of human development;

Individuality is the unique identity of a particular person, his natural and socially acquired properties.

In the concept of personality, the system of socially significant qualities of a person comes to the fore.

Personality has a multi-level organization. The highest and leading level of psychological organization of the individual - its need-motivational sphere - is - focus personalities, her attitude towards society, individuals, herself and her social responsibilities.

A person is not born with ready-made abilities, character, etc. These properties are formed during life, but on a certain natural basis. The hereditary basis of the human body (genotype) determines its anatomical and physiological characteristics, the basic qualities of the nervous system, and the dynamics of nervous processes. The natural, biological organization of man contains the possibilities of his mental development.

A human being becomes human only through mastering the experience of previous generations, enshrined in knowledge, traditions, and objects of material and spiritual culture.

In the formation of an individual as a personality, processes are essential personal identification (the formation of an individual’s identification with other people and human society as a whole) and personalization (an individual’s awareness of the need for a certain representation of his personality in the life activities of other people, personal self-realization in a given social community).

A person interacts with other people on the basis of " Self-concepts ", personal reflection - your ideas about yourself, your capabilities, your significance.

A person is born with certain hereditary inclinations. Most of them are multi-valued: on their basis, various personality traits can be formed. In this case, the educational process plays a decisive role.

However, the possibilities of education are also related to the hereditary characteristics of the individual. Hereditary basis The human body determines its anatomical and physiological characteristics, the basic qualities of the nervous system, and the dynamics of nervous processes. The biological organization of man, his nature, contains the possibilities of his future mental development.

Modern scientific data indicate that certain biological factors can act as conditions that complicate or facilitate the formation of certain mental qualities of a person.

In the second half. In the 20th century, many approaches and theories of personality emerged.

Structural theories of personality are aimed at identifying the structure of personality, its typology, constituent elements, and personality traits. The most prominent representatives of structural theories of personality are G. Allport, K. Rogers, D. Cattell, G. Eysenck.

Gordon Willard Allport(1897 - 1967), an American psychologist, one of the founders of the modern systematic approach to the study of personality psychology, believed that any personality has a stable set of traits. (His theory is called the “theory of personality traits.”) Allport studied the hierarchy of value orientations of the individual and typologized personalities on this basis (“Personality: A Psychological Interpretation,” 1938).

Another American psychologist Carl Ransom Rogers (1902 - 1987), one of the leaders of the so-called humanistic psychology, believed that the core of personality is its self-concept. Formed in the social environment, it is the main integrative mechanism of self-regulation of the individual. The self-concept is constantly compared with the ideal self, causing attempts to protect the self-concept from disintegration: the individual constantly strives for self-justification of his behavior, uses a variety of psychological defense mechanisms (up to perceptual distortions - distortions of perception, and ignoring objects he does not like). Rogers developed a special (interactive) system of psychotherapy based on a trusting relationship with the patient (“Client-Centered Therapy”, 1954).

In the 20th century, experimental and mathematical methods began to be widely used in the study of personality psychology. American psychologist James McKeen Cattell (1860 - 1944) was the founder of the testological movement in psychology. He was the first to use a complex method of modern statistics in the psychological study of personality - factor analysis, which minimizes many different indicators and personality assessments and allows one to identify 16 basic personality traits (Cattell's 16-factor personality questionnaire).

The Cattell questionnaire reveals such basic personality qualities as rationality, secrecy, emotional stability, dominance, seriousness (frivolity), conscientiousness, caution, sensitivity, gullibility (suspiciousness), conservatism, conformity, controllability, tension.

The Cattell questionnaire contains more than 100 questions, the answers to which (affirmative or negative) are grouped in accordance with the “key” - a certain way of processing the results, after which the severity of a particular factor is determined.

Methods for mathematical analysis of the results of observations and surveys, and documentary data were also developed G. Eysenck . His concept of personality traits is associated with its two interrelated basic qualities: 1) extraversion-introversion; 2) stability-instability (neuroticism, anxiety).

cognitive psychology

The disadvantage of structural theories of personality was that based on knowledge of personality traits it is impossible to predict human behavior, because it also depends on the situation itself.

As an alternative to this theory, arose social learning theory. The main psychological characteristic of a person in this theory is an action, or a series of actions. A person’s behavior is influenced by other people, their support or condemnation of actions. A person acts one way or another based on his life experience, which is acquired as a result of interaction with other people. Forms of behavior are acquired through imitation (vicarious learning). A person’s behavior and his personal characteristics depend on the frequency of occurrence of the same “stimulus situations” and on assessments of behavior in these situations received from other people.

One of the main directions of modern foreign psychology is becoming cognitive psychology(from Latin cognitio - knowledge), which, in contrast to behaviorism, postulates knowledge as the basis of behavior. Within the framework of cognitive psychology, the laws of cognitive activity are studied (J. Bruner), the psychology of individual differences (M. Eysenck), and personality psychology (J. Kelly). In connection with the development of cybernetics and the actualization of the problem of managing complex systems, there is an increased interest in the structure of the human.

Proponents also proposed their own approach to personality psychology humanistic psychology(Maslow, Rogers). The main attention of representatives of this direction was paid to the description of the inner world of the individual. The basic human need, according to this theory, is self-actualization, the desire for self-improvement and self-expression.

2. The main task of psychology is:

3. Mental processes include:

4. One of the principles of Russian psychology is the principle:

5. The specific characteristics of testing are:

6. The sign characterizing the concept of “test” is:

7. A person’s observation of the internal plane of his own mental life is:

8. A group of methods based on the phenomenon of projection are called... methods:

9. One of the reasons for changing the subject of psychology from consciousness to behavior was:

10. The methods by which the subject of science is studied are called:

11. Psychology studies individual differences between people:

12. The study of the psyche through communication is called:

13. Psychology becomes an independent and experimental field of scientific knowledge:

14. The foundations of the reflex theory of the psyche were laid by the works:

15. The psychological direction, which believes that the subject of psychology is behavior as a set of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli, is:

16. Psychological system for analyzing mental life, proposed by S. Freud:

17. Domestic psychologist L.S. Vygotsky is the author of:

18. Actively involved in the psychology of activity:

20. W. Wund is the first to create:

21. The founder of the direction of psychology, who considers unconscious drives and instincts to be the source of personality activity:

22. A direction in psychology that denies consciousness and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior is called:

23. S. Freud called that content of the psyche, which under no circumstances can enter the sphere of consciousness:

24. What does the central nervous system include:

25. The structural and functional element of the nervous system is:

26. The perception of environmental signals is carried out by the nervous system with the help of:

27. The system of brain structures and sensory organs that provides perception, processing and storage of information is called:

28. I.P. Pavlov, based on the degree of predominance of the second signaling system over the first, divided human higher nervous activity into:

29. Increased sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercise is called:

30. The executive phase of the animal’s behavior differs, first of all:

31. Stages of evolutionary development of the psyche – 1) perceptual; 2) elementary sensory; 3) intelligence – they have the following order:

32. The concept of “nervous system strength” means:

33. A specific type of human activity is called:

34. Activity as a universal characteristic of living things has received the name in human society:

35. Activities include:

36. The psychological structure of activity does not include the concept:

37. A method of performing an action that has become automated as a result of exercises is:

38. A research method based on the transition from particular judgments to a general conclusion is called:

39. The idea of ​​the future desired result is:

40. According to A.N. Leontiev, the human personality is something other than a hierarchy:

41. Higher mental functions, according to L.S. Vygotsky:

42. The relationship between the purpose of an action and the motive is determined:

43. The method of performing actions is called:

44. The author of the theory of the evolution of the psyche in phylogenesis, accepted in Russian psychology, is:

45. According to A.N. Leontiev, there is no stage in the evolutionary development of the psyche:

46. ​​The simplest animals are characterized by... a nervous system.

47. The emergence of the ability for objective perception and learning is a sign of ... the stage of mental development.

48. The process of development of the psyche from irritability in protozoa to human consciousness is called:

49. Ontogenesis includes the period of human life from birth to death, i.e. not only progressive, but also... changes.

50. The pace and nature of individual mental development:

51. The main condition for the development and formation of personality in domestic psychology is (are):

52. In the concept of J. Piaget, the age from 0 to 2 years corresponds to... the stage of intellectual development:

53. The fundamental difference between the human psyche and animals is:

54. The highest form of reflection, which is inherent in man, is denoted by the concept:

55. The sensory tissue of consciousness contains:

56. The concept of “consciousness” is explained by such definitions as:

57. Consciousness happens:

58. The manifestation of the unconscious does NOT include:

59. Consciousness:

60. One of the components of consciousness is:

61. The initial source of all our knowledge about the external world and our own body is:

62. Mental reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties, objects and phenomena that directly affect the sense organs is called:

63. Auditory and visual sensations are... sensations.

64. The magnitude of the stimulus, which allows a person to first feel the impact and then realize it, is called:

65. Sensation is a mental process consisting of:

66. The ability to sense is available:

67. The minimum strength of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the threshold:

68. A holistic reflection of objects, situations and events that arises through direct influence on the senses is called:

69. The profession of a teacher belongs to the system:

70. The type of labor activity of a person, the subject of his permanent occupation is called:

71. The group of general pedagogical skills includes the following skills:

72. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality is called:

73. The perception of a person by a person has a special name:

74. The attribution of a visual image of perception to certain objects of the external world is called:

75. The illusory apparent movement of a actually stationary object is called:

76. To consciously perceive an object means:

77. Perception is a mental process, the essence of which is:

78. According to the nature of the goals of the activity, memory is divided into:

79. The professional orientation of a teacher’s personality includes:

80. Memory processes do not include:

81. The grounds for differentiation of pedagogical specialties are:

82. Memorization with a special “remember” attitude and requiring certain volitional efforts is... memory.

83. Short-term memory is a type of memory consisting of:

84. In relation to socialization, education acts as a mechanism:

85. Nonsense syllables as material for studying the “pure laws of memory” were proposed by:

86. Amnesia occurs: 1) with local lesions of the cerebral cortex; 2) as a consequence of traumatic events; 3) as a result of the influence of hypnosis.

87. Short-term memory simultaneously contains on average:

88. The mental process of a generalized and indirect reflection of reality is called:

89. Forms of thinking include:

90. Schools where children, of their own free will or at the will of their parents, learn the basics of a particular religious doctrine are called:

91. Thinking operations include:

92. Thinking, which is carried out using logical operations with concepts, is called... thinking.

93. Every act of thinking includes imagination, thanks to which it becomes possible:

94. The motive, the beginning of the movement of thinking is the appearance of... a situation:

95. Intelligence means:

96. Association is a connection between mental phenomena based on the following characteristics: 1) similarity; 2) contrast; 3) spatiotemporal relations; 4) cause-and-effect relationships.

98. The mental process of creating images, including foreseeing the final result of objective activity, is called:

99. The property of consciousness that allows a person to create new images in the process of thinking based on past perception and cognition is:

100. Active imagination can be:

101. Constructing an image of a situation based on a story is realized with ... imagination.

102. The method of creating images of the imagination by isolating any part, detail of the whole, is called:

103. When mastering such academic subjects as physics, chemistry, astronomy, the implementation of... the function of imagination is of great importance.

104. The following types of imagination can be distinguished:

105. Typification as a mechanism of imagination is:

106. Emphasis in the imagination is:

107. Attention is associated with:

108. The annotation plan consists of:

109. The following forms of manifestation of attention are distinguished:

110. The level of training and preparedness to perform a certain type of activity in the received area of ​​training or specialty is called:

111. A person’s ability to hold a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time is called ... attention.

112. The property of attention, which is associated with the possibility of simultaneously successfully performing two or more different types of activities is called:

113. The simplest and initial form of involuntary attention is:

114. The property of attention, manifested in the speed of its transfer from one object to another, is:

115. The term “personality” in psychology is defined as:

116. The systemic social quality acquired by an individual in activity and communication is denoted by the concept:

117. A holistic psychological structure that is formed in the process of a person’s life on the basis of his assimilation of social norms of consciousness and behavior is:

118. A person as a subject of activity is characterized by:

119. A person as an individual is characterized by:

120. The originality of the psyche and personality of an individual, its uniqueness, uniqueness, manifested in the properties of temperament, character traits, emotional and intellectual spheres, needs and abilities, is called:

121. From the following: 1) individuality of the individual; 2) representation of the individual in the system of interpersonal relationships; 3) anatomical and physiological features; 4) imprinting personality in other people - the personality structure includes:

122. The cognitive component of the “I” image is:

123. Extreme variants of the character norm are called:

124. Emotions are most closely related to (with):

125. The human condition caused by insurmountable difficulties arising on the way to achieving a goal is defined as:

126. A special form of experience that arises in an extreme life situation that requires a person to mobilize neuropsychological forces is called:

127. Humanism, responsiveness, justice, dignity, shame are manifestations of... feelings.

128. The ability to empathize with another person is called:

129. The function of the will is:

130. The secondary volitional quality, which consists in the ability to control the sensory side of one’s psyche and subordinate one’s behavior to the solution of consciously set tasks, is:

131. It is not typical for volitional action:

132. A persistent, long-term emotional state with great strength of feelings is:

133. The set of stable individual characteristics represents:

134. The main forms of personality orientation (according to K.K. Platonov) do not include:

135. Individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity are called:

136. The set of individual characteristics that characterize the dynamic and emotional aspects of a person’s behavior, his activities and communication is:

137. Temperament, being..., is the basis of most personality traits.

138. The scientist who developed the physiological basis of the doctrine of types of temperament is:

139. A person’s character is manifested in:

140. A description of the system of characteristics characterizing a particular profession, a list of norms and requirements for an employee is called:

141. Professional readiness for teaching activity is divided into... readiness.

142. Congenital anatomical and physiological characteristics that form the natural basis for the development of human abilities are called:

143. The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity belongs to:

144. The physiological feature of temperament is:

145. The multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities, is called:

146. The actual pedagogical research methods include:

147. The process of perception and knowledge of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis is the content of ... the side of communication.

148. The perception of a person by a person has a special name:

149. Drawing the attention of listeners to the material presented with the help of a rhetorical question refers to ... method.

150. Nonverbal communication is the process of communication using:

151. The initial conceptual scheme, the leading idea, the model for posing and solving problems, dominant during a certain period is:

152. The development of pedagogy is due to:

153. A holistic model of the educational process, systematically determining the structure and content of the activities of both parties to this process (teacher and student), with the goal of achieving the planned results, adjusted for the individual characteristics of its participants, is:

154. B. Bloom’s taxonomy of learning goals includes:

155. The theory and practice of cognition, regulation and implementation by educational and educational environments of the process of socialization or resocialization of a person, the result of which is the acquisition by an individual of orientation and standard of behavior (beliefs, values, corresponding feelings and actions) - this is:

156. The method of education is:

157. Class hour is:

158. Which educational institutions in Russia do not train teaching staff?

159. Deviations in development caused by unfavorable forms of family upbringing and not associated with disorders of the analytical systems or the central nervous system can lead to:

160. A set of personality traits that ensures a high level of self-organization of professional activity is:

161. A paradigm is:

162. Highlight the objectives of the lesson, aimed at developing the information culture of students:

163. In the list below, classify organizational forms of training according to the number of students (according to I.M. Cheredov):

164. Methods of forming knowledge include:

165. Modern approaches to the theory and practice of education:

166.The principles of learning are:

167.Pedagogical process:

168.Learning objectives:

169.Training should be of... character.

170.Education is:

171.Modern models of training organization include:

172. The principles of learning were first formulated by:

173. Didactics is:

174. Training is:

175. The form of organization of training is:

176. Duration of a standard lesson:

177. Teaching and learning are:

178. Pedagogical technologies are divided into:

179. Education is:

180. The learning goal is divided into components - tasks, which are divided into:

181. Which of the lessons is not a lesson in monitoring knowledge and skills?

182. Teaching aids can be:

183. Pedagogical technology is:

184. Teaching methods are:

185. Pedagogical technologies according to the leading factor of development are divided into:

186. The educational process is determined by the following categories:

187. ... learning is a type of learning that is based on an algorithm in its original sense.

188. Which concept (term) is not a concept of learning theory?

189. The principles of training are:

190. In Russia, he first formulated (a) principles of education:

191. Education as co-creation between teacher and student was considered:

192. Creative lesson and non-standard lesson are concepts:

193. What does not apply to written control?

194. Control methods do not include:

195. Training functions and training objectives can be divided into:

196. Training has the following categories:

197. Secondary vocational education institutions do not include:

198. Education is:

199. A teaching tool is:

200. Pedagogical technology is:

201. Pedagogical technologies on a philosophical basis can be:

202. Which concept (term) is not a concept of learning theory?

203. The following types of education are distinguished:

204. ... is a process during which ready-made knowledge is presented to students, followed by a process of consolidation, generalization, systematization and control.

205. The pedagogical process reveals the features of teaching:

206.Definition of the concept of “education”:

207. The system of higher pedagogical education includes the following blocks:

208. Teaching methods are:

209. Control is:

210. Institutions of higher education are:

211. New information teaching aids do not include:

212. The system of principles of developmental education was first proposed by:

213. Training is:

214. Brainring lessons are based on... training.

215. Teaching methods translated from Greek mean:

216. The form of organization of education in secondary school is:

217. A non-standard lesson differs from a standard one:

218. Secondary education institutions do not include:

219. Teaching and learning processes should be:

220. Training in the education system can be:

221. Which concept is not a concept of learning theory?

222. The principles of training are:

223. Learning as co-creation between a teacher (S1) and a student (S2) is characterized by the following model:

224. What does not apply to lessons:

225. Pedagogical technology is:

226. Recognition of the self-worth of the individual, the realization of internal and external freedom is the principle:

227. The group of organizational-structural pedagogical functions includes ... function.

228. Pedagogical creativity is not:

229. The grounds for differentiation of pedagogical specialties are:

230. The main techniques for high-speed note-taking are:

231. Knowledge of the provisions of pedagogical theory, the ability to analyze one’s own scientific activity are included in:

232. The teaching profession refers to ... type of professional activity.

233. There are such types of plans as:

234. Vocational guidance is a system of such interconnected components as:

235. If a teacher adapts his communication to the characteristics of the audience, then his activities can be classified as ... level.

236. A form of vocational guidance that involves assisting students in choosing a profession is called:

237. In accordance with the requirements of the State educational standard for higher professional education, the following types of teaching activities are distinguished:

238. There are such types of theses as:

Systemic qualities of a person

1. The concept and types of systemic qualities of a person;

2. Man as a biological individual;

3. Man as a person;

4. Individuality of a person.

The concept of man as a system was introduced into scientific circulation by Ananyev. Systemic qualities are qualities acquired by a person when included in a certain system and expressing his place and role in this system. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish such systemic qualities as a person as a biological individual (a person as a natural being), a person as a social individual (a person as a social being), a person as a personality (a person as a cultural subject).

Mechanisms of mental regulation consistently develop in ontogenesis: infancy and early childhood - mechanisms characteristic of a biological individual dominate. The formation of an individual begins from the moment of fertilization. Preschool and primary school age is a period of active development of the social individual. The formation of a social individual begins from the moment of birth. Personality formation occurs from about three years of age.

The concept of individual denotes a person’s belonging to a certain biological species and genus. The main form of human development as a biological individual is the maturation of biological structures.

Scheme of individual properties

(according to B.G. Ananyev)

Individual properties

Gender Age Primary Secondary

I. Neurodynamic properties that determine the strength (energy) and time parameters of the flow of n/processes (excitation and inhibition) in the cerebral cortex.

II. Psychodynamic - integrally expressed in the type of temperament and are formed during life on the basis of I properties. They determine the power and time parameters of the course of mental processes and behavior. Temperament is a manifestation of neurodynamic properties at the level of an individual’s mental reflection and behavior.

III. Bilateral properties are characteristics of the localization of psychophysiological mechanisms and functions in the cerebral hemispheres.

IV. Functional asymmetry of mental functions is the uneven distribution of mental functions between different hemispheres.

V. Constitutional properties are the biochemical features of metabolism both in the body of a biological individual in general and in his n/s in particular: a) constitution, b) somatotype - arises on the basis of the constitution under the influence of external factors.

Functions of individual properties: 1. act as a factor in physical and mental development; 2. form a psychophysiological basis for human activity; 3. determine the dynamic (reaction rate, speed, rhythm) and energy (activity potential) human resources.

Personality is a systemic, supersensible quality of a person, acquired by him and manifested by him in joint activities and communication with other people.

Supersensible means that we cannot cognize the personality at the sensory-perceptual level. Personality is presented in the space of interpersonal relationships, in which it is formed and manifested. The unit of analysis is the action.

Personality structure. Social status is a person’s place in the structure of social relations. Social role is a behavioral distribution of status. Social position is a person’s conscious and unconscious attitude towards his own roles. Value orientations are a set of human values. Orientation (core of personality) – a set of dominant motives of behavior and activity: egocentric, business, interpersonal. The dominant emotional background of life. The relationship between behavior and will. Level of development of self-awareness.

We can talk about the so-called global personality characteristics: Personality strength – the ability of an individual to influence other people. It consists of personification of personality (representation in other people), stability (principledness), flexibility - the ability to change.

Individuality is uniqueness, originality, dissimilarity.

In a broad sense, the concept of individuality can be applied to all levels of human analysis. Individual biological characteristics, an individual set of social behaviors, roles and statuses, abilities to perform activities, etc.

In the narrow sense of the word, this concept should be applied only to an individual who has a unique set of motives, values, ideals, attitudes, individual style of activity, etc. An individual style of activity is a set of ways and techniques of performing an activity that are optimal for a given subject.

When they want to characterize a person, they often talk about him either as a person, or as an individual, or as an individual. In psychology, these concepts are different.

Individual– a person individually (about an animal – an individual). The concept of an individual characterizes the physical existence of a person when he acts in his natural, biological characteristics as a human organism. The concept of an individual contains an indication of a person’s similarity to all other people, of his commonality with the human race.

Individuality– a person as a unique, original personality who realizes himself in creative activity. This is the isolation of the individual from the community, the formalization of his uniqueness and originality. Individuality presupposes the certainty of one’s own position in life. If individuality fixes isolation from social relations, then personality, on the contrary, fixes socially significant qualities of a person, inclusion in social relations. Individuality arises when a person meets himself, personality - when a person meets other people.

A person who develops in society, who enters into communication with other people through language, becomes a person. The main thing in characterizing a person is his social essence. Based on this, a person can be considered as a subject and object of social relations.

Personality in psychology, it denotes a systemic (social) quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the degree of representation of social relations in the individual.

Psychologists argue whether every person is an individual. There are two points of view:

1) Each person is a personality, but a personality can have a socially significant character, or it can be asocial (criminal). A child is not yet a person, but he will become a person in the future.

2) According to A.N. Leontyev, personality is born twice: the first time when a three-year-old child puts up the slogan: “I myself”; the second time (or maybe not born!), when a conscious personality emerges with his own beliefs and worldview (at the age of 16).

2. Personality structure. Biological and social in the structure of personality. Let's consider several options for personality structure.

The personality structure according to Freud includes three components:

· Id (It) – primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of personality; functions in the unconscious, obeying the pleasure principle.

· Ego (I) – consciousness, a component of the mental apparatus responsible for making decisions.

· Superego (Superego) – moral control, norms of society.

The function of the Ego is to eliminate the contradictions between the Id and the SuperEgo: behavior should be structured in such a way that both pleasure is received and the norms of society are respected.

The personality structure (according to A.V. Petrovsky) includes the following components.

1. The intra-individual subsystem is the systemic organization of its individuality, represented in the structure of a person’s temperament, character, and abilities.

However, personality cannot be studied outside the system of its social relations and interrelations.

2. Interindividual subsystem - a person in the system of his relationships with other people (outside the individual’s organic body).

3. Meta-individual subsystem - “contributions” of the individual to other people, which the subject carries out through his activities (continuation of himself in others). The process and result of imprinting a subject in other people, its ideal representation and the continuation of “contributions” in them is called personalization. An individual passes away, but personalized in other people he continues to live (deeds, students, objects of material culture). When the entire structure of the personality is destroyed, this link is preserved.

So, this personality structure includes three components: the individuality of the individual, his representation in the system of interpersonal relationships and in other people.

Personality structure according to K.K. Platonov includes the following components (Table 5)

Dynamic structure of personality according to K.K. Platonov

The problem of the relationship between the biological and the social is one of the most complex in modern psychology.

Biological– what is given to a person by nature (anatomical structure of the body, characteristics of GNI, temperament, inclinations). Social- what characterizes a person; this is lifetime education (worldview, tastes, character, etc.).

In psychology, there are theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed under the influence of two factors, biological and social - “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization.

Endopsychics as a substructure of personality expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, as if the internal mechanism of the human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of a person. It includes such traits as sensitivity, characteristics of memory, thinking, imagination, ability to exert volition, etc.

Exopsyche is determined by a person’s relationship to the external environment and includes a person’s system of relationships and his experience, i.e. interests, ideals, inclinations, worldview, prevailing feelings, knowledge, etc.

The endopsyche has a natural basis, the exopsyche is determined by the social factor.

How to treat this two-factor theory? A person is born as a biological being. In this case, the individual is born biologically, much less socially immature; the maturation and development of his body from the very beginning takes place in social conditions. The development of an individual does not begin in a vacuum; it is not tabula raza, a person is born with a certain set of biological properties and physiological mechanisms, which are a prerequisite for the further development of the individual (“No gardener can grow an apple on an oak tree” - V.G. Belinsky). A biological determinant operates throughout an individual’s life (since development occurs throughout life), but its role is different in different periods. However, the biological, entering a person’s personality, becomes social (brain pathology Þ individual biological conditioned natural traits Þ become personal traits in society).

Natural organic traits exist in the personality structure as its socially determined elements. The natural and the social form a unity and cannot be mechanically opposed to each other as independent substructures of personality.

Question 21 Self-awareness, “I am a concept”, the image of “I”. Self-esteem and level of aspirations. Affect of inadequacy. Personality characteristics (psychological protection of the individual, life plan, compensatory mechanisms, intrapersonal conflict)

1. Self-awareness, “I am a concept”, the image of “I”. A person’s interest in his “I” has long been a subject of special attention. Interacting and communicating with other people, a person feels himself to be the subject of his physical and mental states, actions and processes, acts for himself as an “I”, opposed to “others” and inextricably linked with them.

Self-awareness is a set of mental processes through which an individual recognizes himself as a subject of activity, and his ideas about himself are formed into a certain image of “I”.

The image of "I" includes 3 components:

1) cognitive (cognitive) – knowledge of oneself;

2) emotional (assessment of one’s qualities);

3) behavioral (practical attitude towards oneself).

The image of “I” is a dynamic formation and includes many “I” images that replace each other depending on the situation: ~ real “I” ~ ideal “I” ~ fantastic “I”, etc.

"I-concept"- this is the totality of all an individual’s ideas about himself, associated with an assessment. “I-concept” performs 3 main functions.

1) Contributes to the achievement of internal consistency of the individual. A person strives to achieve maximum internal consistency. Representations, ideas, feelings that contradict his own perceptions, ideas, feelings lead to deharmonization of the personality. If a new experience does not fit into existing ideas, the “I-concept” rejects it and acts as a protective screen (“This cannot be, because this can never be”).

2) Determines the interpretation of the acquired experience. Passing through the “I-concept” filter, information is interpreted and given a meaning that corresponds to a person’s ideas about himself.

3) Determines a person’s expectations about himself, i.e. something that needs to happen (“I am a good student, therefore I will pass the psychology exam”). The self-concept guides behavior.

Self-awareness constantly compares actual behavior with the “I-concept” (discrepancy between them leads to suffering).

Self-concept can be positive or negative. A positive self-concept means a positive attitude towards oneself, self-respect, self-acceptance, and a sense of self-worth.

A negative “I-concept” presupposes a negative attitude towards oneself, self-rejection, a feeling of one’s own inferiority; a person cannot achieve agreement between the “I-concept” and behavior.

A person’s ideas about himself, as a rule, seem convincing to him, although they may be subjective. Even objective indicators (height, age) can have different meanings for different people, due to the structure of their “I-concept” (for example, is 40 years the time of blossoming or aging?)

A too rigid structure of the “I-concept” is not a strength of character, but a source of painful inconsistencies. Too weak leads to spinelessness, unsuitability for long and strenuous efforts to achieve the goal.

The image of “I” is one of the most important social attitudes for life. All people feel the need for a positive self-image; a negative attitude towards oneself is always painful.

2. Self-esteem and level of aspirations. Affect of inadequacy. The degree of adequacy of the image of “I” is clarified by studying self-esteem personalities, i.e. a person’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people.

An individual evaluates himself in two ways:

1) by comparing the level of their aspirations with the actual results of their activities;

2) by comparing yourself with other people.

Self-esteem is always subjective. It is not constant, changing depending on circumstances.

Assimilation of new grades can change the meaning of those previously acquired (a student considers himself a good student, but later becomes convinced that good academic performance does not bring happiness in life; self-esteem falls).

Self-esteem can be adequate or inflated (in this case, the person is characterized by arrogance, suspicion, and aggression); underestimated (uncertainty, indifference, self-blame, anxiety).

Self-esteem is closely related to the level of aspirations. Level of aspiration- this is the desired level of self-esteem of an individual, manifested in the degree of difficulty of the goal that the individual sets for himself. The level of individual aspirations is set somewhere between too easy and too difficult tasks so as to maintain self-esteem at the proper height.

Usually, with failures, the level of aspirations and self-esteem decreases. However, it may be that, despite failures, this does not happen and the person does not make any effort to achieve success, to raise his capabilities to the level of aspirations. Reasons for this:

1) some of the child’s abilities, sufficient for success in some area, but not sufficient for great achievements;

2) overestimation, long experience of undeserved praise, consciousness of one’s exclusivity;

3) a very strong need for self-affirmation.

There is a feeling of resentment and confidence in the injustice of others, a hostile and suspicious attitude towards everyone, and aggressiveness. This condition is called affect of inadequacy.

The affect of inadequacy arises for the sake of preserving one’s own attitude towards oneself at the cost of violating adequate relationships with the surrounding reality. Performs a protective function: it satisfies the need for high self-esteem, but is a serious obstacle to the formation of personality.

Prevention of the affect of inadequacy:

1) formation of adequate self-esteem;

2) formation of deep and sustainable interests.

A person’s self-awareness, using the mechanism of self-esteem, sensitively registers the relationship between one’s own aspirations and real achievements. A specific component of the “I” image – self-respect- characterized by the relationship between her actual achievements and what a person claims to achieve.

Self-esteem = success/aspiration

To maintain self-respect you need:

Achieve success (it's hard) or

Reduce the level of claims.

3. Personality characteristics (psychological protection of the individual, life plan, compensatory mechanisms, intrapersonal conflict).

Psychological defense mechanisms begin to operate when achieving a goal in a normal way is impossible (or the person thinks so).

Main types of psychological defense.

1. crowding out– a way to get rid of internal conflict by actively turning off an unacceptable motive or unpleasant information from consciousness. Injured pride, hurt pride and resentment can give rise to the proclamation of false motives for one’s actions in order to hide them not only from others, but also from oneself. True motives are replaced by others that do not cause shame or remorse and are acceptable from the point of view of the social environment. A person can “honestly” forget about an ugly act and force unwanted information out of memory. What is most quickly forgotten by a person is not the bad things that people have done to him, but the bad things that they have done to themselves and others. Ingratitude is associated with repression; envy and components of one’s own inferiority complexes are repressed with enormous force.

2. Reactive formation (inversion)– transformation in the consciousness of the emotional attitude towards an object to the exact opposite.

3. Regression– a return to more primitive forms of behavior and thinking.

4. Projection– unconscious transference to another person, attribution of feelings, desires, inclinations that a person does not want to admit to himself, understanding their social unacceptability. When a person has been aggressive towards someone, he often reduces the attractive qualities of the victim. A stingy person does not consider himself this way, but attributes this quality to other people.

5. Identification- unconscious transference to oneself of feelings and qualities inherent in another person, and inaccessible, but desirable for oneself. The boy unconsciously tries to be like his father and thereby earn his love. In a broad sense, identification is the unconscious adherence to ideals and models in order to overcome one’s own weakness and sense of inferiority.

6. Rationalization- a pseudo-reasonable explanation by a person of his desires, actions, in reality caused by reasons, the recognition of which would threaten the loss of self-esteem. Having not received what he passionately desired, a person convinces himself that “I didn’t really want it.” A person who has committed an unprincipled act refers to “general opinion.”

7. Insulation, or alienation– isolation within the consciousness of factors traumatic to a person. Unpleasant emotions are blocked by consciousness. This type of defense resembles alienation syndrome, which is characterized by a feeling of loss of emotional connection with other people, previously significant events or one’s own experiences, although their reality is recognized.

8). Sublimation– the process of transformation of sexual energy into socially acceptable forms of activity (creativity, social contacts).

The influence of psychological defense preserves a person’s inner comfort, creating the ground for self-justification. A person who is aware of his shortcomings takes the path of overcoming them and can change his actions. If information about the discrepancy between desired behavior and actual actions is not allowed into consciousness, then the psychological defense mechanism is activated and the conflict is not overcome, i.e. a person cannot take the path of self-improvement.

F. Nietzsche wrote about psychological defense: “A person is well protected from himself, from reconnaissance and siege from himself: he usually can only recognize his external fortifications. The fortress itself is inaccessible to him and even invisible - unless friends and enemies play the role of traitors and lead him into it in secret ways.”

Life plan as a characteristic of a person arises as a result of generalization and enlargement of the goals that a person sets for himself, the subordination of his motives, and the formation of a stable core of value orientations. At the same time, concretization and differentiation of goals occurs. A life plan is a phenomenon of both a social and ethical order.

The next personality characteristic is compensatory mechanisms. According to the teachings of A. Adler, an individual, due to defects in the development of his bodily organs, experiences a “feeling of inferiority.” Children experience feelings of inferiority due to their physical size and lack of strength and capabilities. Strong feelings of inferiority (or “inferiority complex”) can make positive growth and development difficult. However, a moderate feeling of inferiority motivates a child to grow, develop, improve and excel.

According to Adler, certain childhood situations can give rise to isolation and psychological problems: 1) organic inferiority, frequent illnesses; 2) spoiledness, when the child lacks confidence because others have always done everything for him; 3) rejection - a situation in family education when a child does not feel love and cooperation in the home, so it is extremely difficult for him to develop these qualities (such children most often become cold and cruel). To help a person compensate for an obvious or disguised inferiority complex, it is important: 1) to understand the person’s specific lifestyle (for this, Adler asked the person to tell the earliest memories or events of his childhood); 2) help a person understand himself; 3) strengthen social interest.

Another personality characteristic is intrapersonal conflict– as a rule, it is generated by oppositely directed aspirations of a person (for example, the desire to immediately satisfy one’s physiological needs and the desire to look decent in the eyes of other people). Often intrapersonal conflict is caused by the need to make a choice. K. Levin proposed the following classification of intrapersonal conflicts: 1) a person must choose from two options that are positive for him; 2) the personality is between the positive and negative options; 3) choice “of two evils”.

Question 22. Motivational-need sphere of personality. Directionality. Personal dispositions: needs, goals, attitudes. Value orientations of the individual.

1. Motivational-need sphere of personality. Directionality. There are two functionally interconnected sides in human behavior: incentive and regulatory. Inducement provides activation and direction of behavior, and regulation is responsible for how it develops in a specific situation from beginning to end. Regulation of behavior is ensured by mental processes, phenomena and states: thinking, attention, abilities, temperament, character, will, emotions, etc. Stimulation (motivation) of behavior is associated with the concept of motive and motivation.

Motivation can be defined as a set of reasons of a psychological nature that explain human behavior, its beginning, direction and activity (searching for answers to the questions: why? why? for what?).

Any form of behavior can be explained by both internal and external reasons (i.e., the psychological properties of a person or the external conditions and circumstances of his activity). In the first case, they talk about motives, needs, goals, intentions, desires, interests, etc.; in the second - about the incentives emanating from the current situation. Psychological factors are called personal dispositions(dispositional motivation), external stimuli determine situational motivation.

Dispositional and situational motivations are not independent. Dispositions can be updated under the influence of a certain situation, and the activation of certain dispositions leads to a change in the subject’s perception of a given situation. Almost any human action is determined situationally and dispositionally. A person's actual behavior is the result of the interaction of his dispositions on a situation, and not simply a response to external stimuli. The subject of the action and the situation mutually influence each other, the result is observed behavior (for example, a person answers the same questions differently in different situations). Motivation is a process of continuous choice and decision-making by weighing behavioral alternatives, which largely depends on the orientation of the individual.

Focus can be defined as a stable aspiration, orientation of thoughts, feelings, desires, actions in a person, which is a consequence of the dominance of certain (main, leading) motivations. We can say that direction is a system of needs, interests, beliefs, and value orientations of a person that give his life meaning and direction. This is the highest level of personality, which is most socially conditioned and most fully reflects the ideology of the community in which the person is included.

2. Personal dispositions: needs, goals, attitudes. Value orientations of the individual. One of the most important dispositions of the motivational sphere is motive. Under motive is understood as: 1) a material or ideal object that directs an activity or action to itself in order to satisfy certain needs of the subject; 2) the mental image of a given object. Motives can be stable and situational, conscious and unconscious. The same behavior can be driven by different motives. Awareness and sustainable motives play a leading role.

The entire set of motives of an individual, which is formed during his life, is called motivational sphere of the individual. The motivational sphere of a person is characterized by: breadth (diversity of motives); flexibility (to assimilate a motivational drive of a lower level, more diverse incentives of a lower level can be used, i.e., a person can use a variety of means to satisfy the same motive); hierarchy (characteristic of the structure of the motivational sphere).

To understand a person’s motivational sphere and its development, it is necessary to consider the individual’s relationships with other people. The formation of the motivational sphere is influenced by the life of society: ideology, politics, ethics, public institutions.

In general, this sphere is dynamic, but some motives are relatively stable and form, as it were, the core of this sphere (the direction of the personality is manifested in them).

Let us list the most important motives for activity and behavior:

a) attraction is the most primitive biological form of orientation;

b) desire - a conscious need and desire for something consciously;

c) desire - arises when a volitional component is included in the structure of desire;

d) interest – a cognitive form of focus on objects;

e) when a volitional component is included in interest, it becomes an inclination;

f) ideal - the objective goal of inclination, concretized in an image or representation;

g) worldview - a system of philosophical, ethical, aesthetic and other views on the world around us;

h) belief - a system of motives of an individual that encourages her to act in accordance with her views, ideals, and worldview.

A motive directs activity to satisfy a specific need. Need is the most important of all possible dispositions.

Need- the state of need of a person or animal in certain conditions that they lack for normal existence and development. A need is always associated with a person’s feeling of dissatisfaction associated with a deficiency of what the body (person) requires. The need activates the search for what is required and maintains the activity of the body until the state of need is completely satisfied.

Human needs are interconnected with each other and with other motivations. The dominant need at a given time can suppress all others and determine the main direction of activity (a hungry student). The main characteristics of human needs are strength, frequency of occurrence and method of satisfaction. An additional characteristic is the substantive content of the need, i.e. what objects of material and spiritual culture can contribute to its satisfaction. A characteristic feature of human needs is their insatiability. Once satisfied, the need arises again and again, forcing a person to create more and more new objects of material and spiritual culture. Spiritual needs play a special role in the development of personality. Each person has a unique combination of needs. A perceived need becomes a motive for behavior.

All living beings have needs, but humans have the most diverse needs. A. Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs, presenting them in the form of a “pyramid” (Table 6)

“Pyramid” of needs by A. Maslow.

Maslow identified the following principles of human motivation.

· Motives have a hierarchical structure.

· The higher the level of motive, the less vital the corresponding needs are, the longer their implementation can be delayed.

· Until the lower needs are satisfied, the higher ones remain relatively irrelevant.

· As needs increase, readiness for greater activity increases. The opportunity to satisfy higher needs is a greater stimulus for activity than satisfying lower ones.

Self-actualization is not the final state of human perfection. Every person always has talents for further development. Maslow called a person who has reached level five a “psychologically healthy person.”

Second in motivational significance (after need) is the concept of goal. Target- a directly cognizable result to which an action is currently directed, associated with an activity that satisfies an actualized need. The goal is perceived by a person as the immediate and immediate expected result of his activity. It is the main object of attention, occupies the volume of short-term and operative memory, the thought process unfolding at the moment and most of the emotional experiences are associated with it.

An important place in the structure of focus is occupied by value orientations– personal formations that characterize the attitude towards the goals of life, as well as the means of achieving these goals. Value orientations express an individual’s preferences regarding certain human values ​​(well-being, health, cognition, creativity, etc.). The nature of goals and value orientations determines the nature of a person’s life activity as a whole.

Question 23. Communication concept. Types and means of communication. Structure of communication. Communication as a communicative process. Interactive and perceptual aspects of communication.

1. The concept of communication. Types and means of communication. Communication structureCommunication- a complex multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy and the perception and understanding of another person.

Thus, three sides can be distinguished in communication:

· communication (exchange of information),

interaction (organization of interaction),

· social perception (partners’ perception and knowledge of each other).

In communication, content, purpose and means are distinguished.

Communication means- methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information (through the senses, tactile contact, sign contacts).

Types of communication:

Direct (using natural human organs);

Indirect (using special means and tools);

Indirect (through intermediaries);

Interpersonal;

Role-playing (participants are carriers of certain roles);

Verbal;

Nonverbal.

2. Communication as a communicative process. When they talk about communication in the narrow sense of the word, they mean that people communicate in the course of joint activities with their ideas, ideas, moods, feelings, and attitudes. However, human communication is not limited to the transfer of information: information in human communication is not only transmitted, but also is being formed, TBC, develops.

Firstly, communication cannot be understood only as the sending of information to some transmitting system and its reception by another system, since, unlike the simple movement of information, we are dealing with the relationship of two active individuals, and their mutual informing presupposes the establishment of joint activities. When sending information to another participant, it is necessary to focus on him, that is, analyze his motives, goals, attitudes, and contact him. Schematically: S=S (communication is an intersubjective process). It must also be assumed that in response to the information sent, new information will be received coming from the other partner.

In the communication process, there is not just the movement of information, but also the active exchange of it. The significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication: after all, people not only exchange knowledge, but also strive to develop a common meaning. This is possible only if the information is not just accepted, but also understood, comprehended, not just information, but a joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communication process, communication, activity and cognition are presented in unity.

Secondly, the exchange of information involves influencing the behavior of the partner. The effectiveness of communication is measured by the extent to which this impact is achieved. When exchanging information, the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in communication changes.

Thirdly, communicative influence is possible only when the person sending the information ( communicator), and the person receiving it ( recipient) have a single or similar codification system (everyone must speak the same language). People do not always understand the meaning of the same words in the same way. The exchange of information is possible only when the signs and, most importantly, the meanings assigned to them are known to all participants in the communication process (then they will be able to understand each other).

Thesaurus– a common system of meanings understood by all members of the group. The reason for different understanding of the same words may be the social, political, and age characteristics of people. “A thought is never equal to the direct meaning of words” (L.S. Vygotsky). If what a person intended for a statement is taken as 100%, then only 90% is put into verbal forms (sentences), and only 80% is expressed. Of what was intended, 70% is heard, only 60% is understood, and 10-24% remains in memory.

Communicators also need the same understanding of the communication situation (this is only possible if communication is included in some general system of activity). For example, a husband greeted at the door by his wife’s words: “I bought some light bulbs today,” should not be limited to their literal interpretation: he should understand that he needs to go to the kitchen and change the light bulb.

Fourthly, in the context of human communication, specific communication barriers may arise:

I. Barriers to understanding:

2) semantic (caused by differences in the meanings of the participants in communication)

3) stylistic (mismatch of communication styles)

4) logical (the logic of the communicator is either complex, incorrect, or contradicts the inherent manner of proof of the recipient)

II. Barriers of socio-cultural differences.

III. Attitude barrier (hostility, distrust of the communicator extends to the information transmitted by him).

The transmission of any information is possible only through sign systems. Verbal communication uses human speech as a sign system. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when transmitting information through speech, only the style of the message is lost.

Speech performs two functions:

1) communicative (means of communication),

2) significative (form of existence of thought).

With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator, in the process of speaking, encodes his idea using words, and the recipient, in the process of listening, decodes this information. Disclosure of the meaning of a message is unthinkable outside the situation of joint activity. The accuracy of understanding can become obvious to the communicator only when the recipient himself turns into a communicator and, through his statement, makes it known how he revealed the meaning of the received information. The success of verbal communication in the case of dialogue is determined by the extent to which the partners provide the thematic focus of the information, as well as its two-way nature.

How to increase the effect of speech influence?

A set of special measures aimed at increasing the effectiveness of speech influence is called "persuasive communication"

Here are some examples of persuasive communication techniques. The speaker must have the ability to attract the attention of the listener if he resists accepting information, to attract him in some way, to confirm his authority, and to improve the manner of presenting the material. An important factor influencing the audience is the interaction of information and audience attitudes.

There are 3 possible communicator positions:

Open – the communicator openly declares himself a supporter of the stated point of view, provides facts to support it

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