When studying modern literature on conflict, we were able to identify 112 definitions and significant differences in their formulations.

• Conflict- this is a manifestation of objective or subjective contradictions, expressed in the confrontation of the parties.
• Conflict- this is the most acute way of resolving significant contradictions that arise in the process of interaction, which consists in the opposition of the subjects of the conflict and is usually accompanied by negative emotions.

According to F. Glasl, many Anglo-American authors place emphasis in their definitions on conflicting goals or interests, which pursue the parties, but do not provide a clear definition of the concept of “conflict”.

From all the definitions of the definition of “conflict,” a number of questions arise. What contradictions are significant and what is a contradiction in general and how do they differ from conflicts?

Almost no one, with the exception of Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky does not define contradiction as a speech act. He identifies three stages of development of the struggle of interests that lead to conflict. “The actions in this struggle can be divided into three stages of intensity: differences of opinion, contradictions in discussions and direct struggle in the form of conflicts in action.” Thus, we will consider as a difference any statement of an authoritarian type from the 1st person in an approved form in any type of literature.

From our point of view, dialogue can be considered a contradiction, i.e. speech act when differences between parties are expressed.

Conceptual scheme characterizing essence of the conflict should cover four main characteristics: structure, dynamics, functions and conflict management.

The structure of the conflict includes:

• object (subject of dispute);
• subjects (individuals, groups, organizations);
• conditions of the conflict;
• scale of the conflict (interpersonal, local, regional, global);
• strategies and tactics of behavior of the parties;
• outcomes of a conflict situation (consequences, results, their awareness).

Any real conflict is a complex dynamic process, including the following main stages:

• subject situation— the emergence of objective causes of the conflict
• conflict interaction- incident or developing conflict
• conflict resolution(Full or partial).

The conflict, regardless of its nature, carries out a number of actions, among which the most important are:

• dialectical— serves to identify the causes of conflict interaction;
• constructive- the tension caused by the conflict can be directed towards achieving a goal;
• destructive- a personal, emotional coloring of relationships appears, which interferes with problem solving. Conflict management can be viewed in two aspects: internal and external. The first of them is to manage one’s own behavior in conflict interactions. The external aspect of conflict management assumes that the subject of management can be a manager (manager, leader, etc.)

Conflict management- this is a purposeful influence on its dynamics, determined by objective laws, in the interests of the development or destruction of the social system to which this conflict is related.

In the scientific literature one can trace various attitude towards conflicts. Conflict, as a phenomenon, is always undesirable, which should, if possible, be avoided and resolved immediately. This attitude is clearly visible in the works of authors belonging to the school of scientific management and the administrative school. Authors belonging to the “human relations” group also tended to believe that conflicts should be avoided. But if conflicts were present in organizations, they considered this as a sign of ineffective activity and poor management.

The modern view is that even in well-managed organizations, some conflict is not only possible, but may even be desirable. In many cases, conflict helps to highlight diversity of viewpoints, provides additional information, helps identify problems, etc.

Thus, conflict can be functional and lead to increased organizational effectiveness. Or it may be dysfunctional and lead to decreased personal satisfaction, group cooperation, and organizational effectiveness. The role of conflict mainly depends on how effectively it is managed.

Types of conflicts

In modern literature there are many classifications of conflicts on various grounds.

• Inter-individual conflicts
• Intergroup conflicts and their types:
  • interest groups
  • groups of ethno-national character
  • groups united by a common position;
• conflicts between associations
• intra- and inter-institutional conflicts
• conflicts between state entities
• conflicts between cultures or types of cultures

R. Dahrendorf gives one of the broadest classifications of conflicts.

• According to sources of occurrence (conflicts of interests, values, identification).
• According to social consequences (successful, unsuccessful, creative or constructive, destructive or destructive).
• By scale (local, regional, interstate, global, micro-, macro-, and mega-conflicts).
• By forms of struggle (peaceful and non-peaceful).
• According to the characteristics of the conditions of origin (endogenous and exogenous).
• In relation to the subjects’ attitude to the conflict (genuine, accidental, false, latent).
• According to the tactics used by the parties (battle, game, debate).

A.V. Dmitrov gives several classifications of social conflicts on different grounds. The author includes conflicts in the following areas: economic, political, labor, social security, education, education, etc.

Types of conflicts in relation to an individual subject:

• internal (personal conflicts);
• external (interpersonal, between the individual and the group, intergroup).

In psychology, it is also common to distinguish: motivational, cognitive, role, etc. conflicts.

K. Levin attributes motivational conflicts(few people are satisfied with their work, many do not believe in themselves, experience stress, overload at work) to a greater extent, to intrapersonal conflicts. L. Berkowitz, M. Deutsch, D. Myers describe motivational conflicts as group ones. Cognitive conflicts are also described in the literature both from the standpoint of intrapersonal and intergroup conflicts.

Role conflicts(the problem of choosing one of several possible and desired options): intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup most often manifest themselves in the activity sphere. But most often in the psychological literature three types of conflicts are described: at the intrapersonal level, at the interpersonal and intergroup level.

F. Lutens highlights 3 types of intrapersonal conflicts: role conflict; conflict caused by frustration, conflict of goals.

Intergroup conflict- these are, as a rule, conflicts of interest between groups in the production sector.

Intergroup conflicts are most often generated by the struggle for limited resources or spheres of influence within an organization, which consists of many formal and informal groups with completely different interests. This confrontation has different foundations. For example, professional-production (designers-production-financiers), social (workers-employees - management) or emotional-behavioral ("lazy people" - "hard workers").

But the most numerous are interpersonal conflicts. In organizations they manifest themselves in different ways, most often in the form of management’s struggle for always limited resources. 75-80% of interpersonal conflicts are generated by the clash of material interests of individual subjects, although outwardly this manifests itself as a discrepancy in characters, personal views or moral values. These are communication conflicts. Similar are the conflicts between the individual and the group. For example, a clash between a manager and a united front of subordinates who do not like the boss’s harsh disciplinary measures aimed at “tightening the screws.”

Types of conflicts by nature:

• objective, related to real problems and shortcomings;
• subjective, due to different assessments of certain events and actions.

Types of conflicts by consequences:

• constructive, involving rational transformations;
• destructive, destroying the organization.

Conflict Management

To effectively manage conflicts, a manager must:

• determine its type of conflict
• its reasons
• its features,
• and then apply the resolution method necessary for this type of conflict.

The main task of managing intrapersonal conflict may be:

• If these are goal conflicts, then the main efforts of managers should be aimed at achieving compatibility between personal and organizational goals.
• if this is a conflict of roles, then their type should be taken into account (conflict of personality and expectations associated with the role; conflict can also arise when there are different requirements for the roles that a person must play at the same time).

Resolution methods intrapersonal conflicts there are many: compromise, withdrawal, sublimation, idealization, repression, reorientation, correction, etc. But the whole difficulty lies in the fact that it is very difficult for the person himself to state, identify and manage intrapersonal conflict. They are very well described in the scientific literature, but in practice it is very difficult to resolve them on your own.

Interpersonal conflicts cover almost all areas of human relations.

Managing interpersonal conflicts can be considered in two aspects - internal and influence.

The internal aspect is associated with some individual qualities of the person himself and the skills of rational behavior in conflict.

The external aspect reflects management activities on the part of the manager in relation to a specific conflict.

In the process of managing interpersonal conflicts, causes, factors, mutual likes and dislikes should be taken into account at different stages of management (prevention, regulation, resolution). There are two main ways to resolve them: administrative or pedagogical.

Too often, conflicts that arise, for example, between a boss and a subordinate, an employee or a client, either escalate into fighting or withdrawal. Neither option is an effective way to manage conflict. Psychologists and sociologists offer several more options for individual behavior in conflict. The two-dimensional model of individual behavior in conflict interaction developed by K. Thomas and R. Killman has become widespread in conflict situations. This model is based on the orientation of the conflict participants towards their own interests and the interests of the opposing party. The participants in the conflict, analyzing their interests and the interests of the opponent, choose 5 strategies of behavior (fight, withdrawal, concessions, compromise, cooperation).

To resolve and maintain positive relationships, it is better to follow these tips:

• Cool down
• Analyze the situation
• Explain to the other person what the problem is
• Leave the person a “way out”

Group conflicts are less common in practice, but they are always larger in scale and more severe in their consequences. It is important for a manager to know that the causes of conflicts that arise between an individual and a group are related to:

• with violation of role expectations
• with inadequacy of internal attitude to the status of the individual
• in violation of group norms

To effectively manage the “person-group” conflict, you need to analyze these parameters, as well as identify the form of its manifestation (criticism, group sanctions, etc.)

Conflicts of the “group-group” type are characterized by their diversity and their reasons for their occurrence, as well as the distinctive forms of their manifestation and course (strikes, rallies, meetings, negotiations, etc.). Methods for managing conflicts of this type are presented in more detail in the works of American sociologists and psychologists (D. Geldman, H. Arnold, St. Robbins, M. Dilton).

At different stages of managing intergroup conflicts (prediction, prevention, regulation, resolution) there is a specific content of management actions; they will differ. We can observe such a difference, for example, when resolving a conflict:

Conflict of the “person-group” type is resolved in two ways: the conflicting person admits his mistakes and corrects them; a conflicting individual, whose interests cannot be brought into a state of congruence with the interests of the group, leaves them. A “group-group” conflict is resolved either by organizing a negotiation process or by concluding an agreement to coordinate the interests and positions of the conflicting parties.

From a practical point of view, the problem of regulating relationships is formed as a task of changing behavioral stereotypes. According to G.M. Andreev, there must be a replacement of some - destructive ones - with others, more constructive ones.

Only by knowing the essence and functions of the conflict is it possible to properly manage it and have a positive solution. This will be discussed in the article.

Definition of "conflict"

If you set yourself a goal, then from modern psychological literature you can glean more than a hundred definitions of this term with noticeable differences in formulation.

The most common ones worth mentioning are:

1. A conflict is an expression of subjective or objective disagreements that find expression in a duel between the parties.
2. Conflict is one of the most acute ways to resolve significant differences that arose during the interaction of its subjects and is associated with negative emotions.

Difference between contradiction and conflict

Apart from Yuri Rozhdestvensky, none of the experts consider disagreement to be a speech act. The famous linguist defines three stages of development of the clash of interests that caused the problematic situation. He believes that they are:

• difference of opinion;
• disagreements in discussions;
• open struggle in actions, expressed by conflict.

It follows that a contradiction is a dialogue, in other words, a speech act in which the parties express disagreements. Conflict should be considered speech acts of subjects that are aimed at causing harm to the enemy.

Composition, structure of the conflict

In order for the concept and functions of conflict to become clear, it is necessary to become familiar with its four main components: dynamics, structure and management.

The structure of this concept consists of:

• subject of dispute or object;
• subject(s), that is, specific individuals, organizations, groups participating in it;
• scale (it can be global, regional, local or interpersonal);
• the conditions in which the conflict occurs;
• tactics and strategies of the parties;
• possible outcomes of the conflict, results, consequences, as well as awareness of this.

A real conflict is a complex developing process that follows the following stages:

1. Subject situation. At this stage, objective reasons for starting it are born.
2. Conflict interaction. This stage represents an incident, or a temporary development of a difficult situation.
3. Full or partial resolution of a problem situation.

You should also consider what functions the conflict performs, depending on the consequences for its participants:

• constructive (the tension that arose during a difficult situation can be used to solve certain problems or goals);
• dialectical (finding the causes of the conflict);
• destructive (elimination of problems inhibits the emotional color of interaction).

These are the main functions of conflict, expressed in its consequences, but many authors identify several more, depending on their views.

Conflict management

Conflict can be managed - that is, deliberately influence the path of development of a problem situation. There are two aspects: external and internal. The first is that the manager/leader can act as a subject of management. Internal means control of one’s own behavior in conflict interactions.

Interpretation of the conflict function

Scientific literature demonstrates different attitudes to the issue described. As a negative phenomenon, a problematic situation needs to be resolved, and if possible, it is better to avoid it altogether. This opinion is contained in the works of the authors of the administrative school. And a group of specialists belonging to the school of “human relations” adhere to a similar idea. After all, the presence of problematic interactions in an organization meant mismanagement and ineffective work.

Today there is a belief that disagreement is inevitable, and in some cases desirable, even in well-managed organizations. The positive functions of conflict are to discover different points of view, multiple sources of information, and reveal problem areas. But its negative manifestations include the possible occurrence of violence, disorganization, a slowdown in the pace of development, etc.

It should be concluded that the functions of conflicts are in the development of a group or individual, but can also lead to a negative sense of self and deterioration of work in a group or organization. Correct or illiterate management of a problem situation decides its role for the subjects; the destructive functions of the conflict can take over.

Conflict classifications

• between cultures (types of cultures);
• between government forms;
• between and within institutions;
• between associations.

Groups involved in a conflict may be divided into:

• groups based on common position;
• ethnic;

• interest groups;

• between individuals.

American philosopher Ralph Dahrendorf defined one of his most extensive classifications:

• by scale;
• on social consequences;
• by sources of occurrence;
• by forms of struggle;
• in relation to the subjects’ attitude to the conflict;
• according to the characteristics of the conditions of origin;
• according to the tactics used by the parties.

A. Dmitrov classifies social conflicts by area: political, economic, labor, education, social security, etc.

• integrative;
• innovative;
• activation of social connections;
• transformation of relationships;
• signaling about hotbeds of social tension;
• preventive;
• informational;
• adaptive;
• social changes.

If the parties to a social conflict are able to resolve it, then this serves as an incentive for progressive changes in society.

The functions of social conflict serve to determine the importance of a given predicament. Regarding a specific subject, conflicts are divided into:

• External (intergroup, between subject and group, interpersonal);
• Internal (personal conflicts).

Psychologists also divide interactions of this kind into motivational, role, cognitive and others.

Kurt Lewin believed that motivational conflicts should be classified as intrapersonal. Examples of these include job dissatisfaction, lack of self-confidence, stress and overload at work. Berkowitz, Myers and Deutsch classified this same category as group.

Role conflicts, the essence of which is the problem of choosing a suitable option among several, are considered at the intergroup, interpersonal and intrapersonal levels. According to the works of Fred Lutens, intrapersonal conflicts should be divided into: goal, role and frustration.

Intergroup and interpersonal conflicts

Intergroup conflicts arise when the interests of certain groups clash. The impetus for the emergence of such a situation may be a struggle for resources or influence in an organization consisting of a number of groups with differing interests.

The most common are interpersonal conflicts. Most of them arise from the struggle for material values, although outwardly this looks like an imbalance in views or worldview. In other words, these are communication conflicts.

By nature, such situations are divided into:

1. Objective - real problems.
2. Subjective - assessment of actions or phenomena.

And according to the consequences they are classified as:

1. Constructive - rational changes.
2. Destructive - destruction.

Algorithm of actions for conflict management

To achieve results through proper conflict management, the manager must determine its type, as well as the causes and functions of conflicts.

He then applies the best possible solution.

To manage intrapersonal goal conflict, a manager must balance personal and organizational goals. For role conflict, you first need to understand the type of situation. There are a number of ways to resolve intrapersonal conflicts:

• compromise;
• sublimation;
• care;

• crowding out;
• reorientation;
• correction, etc.

Interpersonal conflicts can arise in any area of ​​relationships. Their management should be analyzed in internal and external aspects.

At all stages of managing this situation, likes and dislikes, causes and factors should be considered. There are two known ways to resolve this type of conflict: pedagogical and administrative. In most cases, conflicts, for example, between a subordinate and a boss, result in withdrawal or fighting. Both options are not suitable for solving them effectively.

Experts are considering a number of other possible options for how an individual can behave. One of the most popular is the two-dimensional model of Thomas and Killman. It is based on the appeal of the subjects of the conflict to their interests and the interests of the opposition. When analyzing interests, participants adhere to one of five types of behavior: leaving, fighting, concessions, cooperation, compromise.

Group conflicts

Group conflicts are no less common, but have a greater scale and impact. The manager must take into account that the reasons for such interaction lie in:

1. Violating group norms.
2. Violation of role expectations.
3. Incorrect internal personality attitude.

After a thorough analysis of the situation according to the parameters described above, it is necessary to consider the form in which it manifests itself.

The conflict between an individual and a group can be resolved in two ways:

1. The person who discovered the problem corrects the recognized errors.
2. An individual leaves the group as a result of a discrepancy between his interests and the interests of the group.

The conflict between the two groups is described in a variety of forms and causes. It can be expressed in a strike, a rally, negotiations or meetings. American psychologists and sociologists Arnold, Geldman, Dilton, Robbins and others especially carefully studied such situations between groups.

The “group-group” conflict can be resolved through negotiations or by concluding an agreement on comparing the positions and interests of the subjects.

So, there are constructive functions of conflict - fixing contradictions, resolving them, relieving tension and stabilizing. Their dominance depends on proper management of the situation. This is the only way to improve the current state of affairs.

Conflicts can be classified on different grounds.

I. Depending on the number of participants, conflicts are:

1. Intrapersonal- a collision within a person of equal strength, but oppositely directed motives, needs, interests.

2. Interpersonal– presuppose a clash between individuals.

3. Between the individual and the group– arise when an individual’s behavior does not correspond to the norms of the group, its expectations.

4. Intergroup– in which the conflicting parties are social groups pursuing incompatible goals and preventing the implementation of their intentions.

II. Depending on the predominance for participants:

1. Constructive– as their consequences, they have predominantly positive functions for the group and the individual: team unity, development of new solutions, etc.

2. Destructive– lead predominantly to the destruction of the group in which they occur.

III. Depending on the nature of the conflict:

1. Social– the highest degree of development of contradictions in the system of relations between people, social groups, social institutions, characterized by the strengthening of opposing tendencies and interests of social communities and individuals (interstate, international, ethnic, national).

2. Organizational– occurring within enterprises, organizations and is a consequence of organizational regulation of individual activities.

3. Emotional and personal – determined by the individual’s reaction to infringement of his interests.

IV. Depending on the “valence” of influences of equal strength (intrapersonal conflicts):

1. “Approaching - approaching” - it is necessary to make a choice from two equally attractive alternatives (the case of Buridan’s donkey).

2. “Approaching - moving away” - the same goal is equally attractive and unattractive, causing both positive and negative emotions (“both want and tingle”)

3. “Delete - delete” - you must choose from two equally unattractive alternatives.

Functions of conflict.

Conflicts can perform positive and negative functions.

The positive functions of conflict include:

Détente between conflicting parties

information and communication function

· consolidation and structuring of organizations (external enemy, for example)

· stimulation for change and development

Removing the submissive syndrome

diagnostic function

The negative functions of conflict include:

· deterioration of the socio-psychological climate in the team, group

· reducing the degree of cooperation between the parties in the future

· inappropriately inflated perception of one’s group in relation to other groups

· affirmation of the spirit of conflict in a group or society as a whole.

Dynamics of conflict.

Every real conflict is a process. Consideration of the conflict in dynamics involves identifying the stage of the conflict.

These include the following:

· the emergence of an objective conflict situation

· awareness of an objective conflict situation

transition to conflict behavior

· conflict resolution

The emergence of an objective conflict situation. This is the stage of potential conflict, since it becomes a real conflict only at the next stage.

Awareness of an objective conflict situation. Usually, understanding a situation as a conflict is the result of understanding a really existing objective contradiction of interests and aspirations. It is the understanding of the situation as a conflict that gives rise to conflict behavior.

Transition to conflict behavior. Conflict behavior can be defined as actions aimed at directly or indirectly blocking the opposing party from achieving its goals, intentions, etc. Conflict actions sharply aggravate the emotional background of the conflict, and emotions, in turn, stimulate conflict behavior.

The transition to conflict behavior means the entry of the conflict into its open, obvious and usually the most acute stage. And for this reason, it is natural that, first of all, various methods of conflict resolution are aimed at eliminating conflict behavior.

Conflict resolution. This is the final stage in the evolution of the conflict. Conflict resolution is possible, firstly, by transforming the conflict situation itself and, secondly, by transforming the images of the situation that the parties have. At the same time, in both cases, a twofold resolution of the conflict is possible: partial, when only conflict behavior is excluded, but the internal restrained impulse to conflict among the parties is not excluded, and complete, when the conflict is eliminated both at the level of actual behavior and at the internal level. level.

9. Conflicts in the organization: concepts, causes, types, functions

Conflict - lack of agreement between two or more parties, each party does everything to ensure that its point of view is accepted, and prevents the other party from doing the same.

Most often, conflict is associated with threats, disputes, war, etc., hence the opinion that conflict is always an undesirable phenomenon, that it must be avoided and immediately resolved as soon as it arises.

But in many situations, conflict helps bring out a diversity of points of view, provides additional information, helps identify more alternatives or problems, etc. This makes the group's decision-making process more effective and also gives people the opportunity to express their thoughts and thereby satisfy their personal needs for esteem and power.

Thus, conflict can be functional and lead to improved organizational performance. Or it may be dysfunctional and lead to decreased personal satisfaction, group cooperation, and organizational effectiveness. The role of conflict mainly depends on how effectively it is managed.

Causes of conflicts in an organization

Resource distribution. Resources are always limited. Management decides how to distribute them in the most efficient way. But people always want to receive more, not less. Thus, the need to share resources almost inevitably leads to various types of conflict.

Interdependence of responsibilities.

Since all organizations are systems consisting of interdependent elements, if one unit or person is not performing adequately, task interdependence can cause conflict.

Differences in goals. The potential for conflict increases as organizations become divided into departments. This happens because specialized units formulate their own goals and can pay more attention to achieving them than the goals of the entire organization.

Differences in Values. The idea of ​​a situation depends on the desire for a specific goal. People can only consider those aspects of a situation that are favorable to their group and personal needs.

Differences in values ​​are a very common cause of conflict. For example, a subordinate may believe that he always has the right to express his opinion, while a manager may believe that a subordinate has the right to express his opinion only when asked and do as he is told without question.

Differences in life experiences and behavior patterns. Research has shown that differences in life experiences, values, education, experience, age and social characteristics reduce the degree of mutual understanding and cooperation between representatives of different departments.

Poor communications. If management fails to convey to subordinates that the new performance-related pay scheme is not intended to squeeze workers out but to increase the company's profits and position among its competitors, then subordinates may slow down the pace of work. Other common communication problems include ambiguous quality criteria, failure to accurately define the job responsibilities and functions of all employees and departments, and the presentation of mutually exclusive job requirements. These problems may arise or be exacerbated by a manager's failure to communicate an accurate job description to subordinates.

Types of conflicts in an organization

There are four main types of conflicts in an organization:

1. Intrapersonal conflict or a conflict of mental levels. One of its most common forms is role conflict, when conflicting demands are made on a person regarding what the result of his work should be.

Intrapersonal conflict may also arise when job demands are inconsistent with personal needs or values.

Intrapersonal conflict can also be a response to work overload or underload. Research shows that such intrapersonal conflict is associated with low job satisfaction, low self-confidence and organization, and stress.

2. Interpersonal conflict. This type of conflict is perhaps the most common. Most often, this is a struggle between managers over limited resources, capital or labor, time to use equipment, or approval of a project. Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities. As a rule, the views and goals of such people differ radically.

3. Conflict between individual and group. Production groups set standards for behavior and performance. Everyone must comply with them in order to be accepted by the informal group and thereby satisfy their social needs. However, if the group's expectations conflict with the individual's expectations, conflict may arise.

A similar conflict may arise based on the manager's job responsibilities: between the need to ensure adequate productivity and adherence to the rules and procedures of the organization.

4. Intergroup conflict. Organizations are made up of many groups, both formal and informal. Even in the best organizations, conflicts can arise between such groups.

A common example of intergroup conflict is disagreement between line and staff personnel. Line managers may reject the recommendations of staff specialists and express dissatisfaction with their dependence on them for everything related to information. In extreme situations, line managers may deliberately choose to implement the specialists' proposal in such a way that the whole undertaking will end in failure. Often, due to differences in goals, functional groups within the organization begin to conflict with each other.

Conflict resolution styles

There are five main interpersonal styles of conflict resolution:

1 - evasion,
2 - smoothing,
3 - coercion,
4 - compromise and
5 - solution to the problem.

1. The first style is avoidance of resolving a contradiction that has arisen, when one of the parties to whom the “accusation” is brought takes the topic of communication in another direction. In this case, the “accused” refers to lack of time, the untimeliness of the dispute, and “leave the battlefield.”

2. The second outcome option is smoothing, when one of the parties either justifies itself or agrees with the claim, but only for the moment. Justifying oneself does not completely solve the conflict and can even aggravate it, as the internal, mental contradiction intensifies.

3. The third type is compromise. It means an open discussion of opinions aimed at finding the most convenient solution for both parties. In this case, partners put forward arguments in their own and in others’ favor, do not postpone decisions until later and do not unilaterally force one to one possible option. The advantage of this outcome is the reciprocity of equality of rights and obligations and the legalization (opening) of a claim. Compromise while following the rules of behavior in a conflict really relieves tension or helps to find the optimal solution.

4. The fourth option is coercion, an unfavorable and unproductive outcome of the conflict when none of the participants takes into account the position of the other. It usually occurs when one of the parties has accumulated enough minor grievances, gathered strength and put forward strong arguments that the other side cannot overcome.

5. The fifth option is to solve the problem. In order to determine the essence of the conflict, the parties to the conflict must agree on their ideas about the current situation and develop a specific strategy of behavior.

Conflict resolution is impossible without people's adequate perception of what is happening, the openness of their relationships and the presence of an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation.

Topic: FUNCTIONS, TYPES OF CONFLICTS

Brief summary

Questions:

1. Functions of conflict
2. Classification of types of conflict

1. Functions of conflict

Modern psychology is characterized by the recognitiondual nature of the conflict.

In everyday life, there is a traditional attitude towards conflicts as negative phenomena.

Conflicts, on the one hand, fulfillnegative functionin relation to the main participants of interaction:

1. Pronounced negative impact onmental conditionits participants. Thus, 79% of people experience a conflict with a bad mood.
   1. Unfavorable conflicts may be accompanied bypsychological and physical violence.Statistics show that most intentional killings are committed as a result of escalating conflicts. Interethnic and interstate conflicts are usually accompanied by a huge number of victims.

3) Conflict is frequentaccompanied by stress.With frequent and emotionally intense conflicts, the likelihood of cardiovascular diseases, as well as chronic disorders of the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, increases sharply.

4) Conflict is inevitableaccompanied by a disruption of the communication systemin a team or organization. Conflict can negatively affect relationships in a team and its socio-psychological climate. Studies have shown that as a result of destructive conflict resolution, relationships worsen in 19 - 30% of cases.

5) Conflicts negatively affect business performance. Participants in the conflict pay less attention to the quality of work, so in every third situation the quality of the team’s joint activities deteriorates.

1. Destructive conflicts:

A) form a negative image of another -“enemy image”, which contributes to the formation of a biased negative attitude towards the opponent;

b) reinforced in social experienceindividuals and groupsviolent ways to solve problems;

V) negatively affect human development.

On the other hand, conflict fulfills a number ofpositive functionsin relation to the main participants.

1. The most important positive function of conflict is that, being a form of contradiction,conflict is a source of development.

If resolved constructively, conflict allows a person to rise to new heights; expand the scope and methods of interaction with others. The individual gains social experience in solving difficult life situations.

2) Conflict allows for moredeeply assess the individual psychological characteristics of peopleparticipating in it. Conflict reveals a person’s value orientations, the strength of his motives, and his psychological resistance to stress factors. It promotes deeper knowledge of each other, revealing not only attractive character traits, but also what is valuable in a person. In approximately 10-15% of conflict situations, the relationship between the opponents after the end of the conflict becomes better than it was before.

3) Conflict allowsease mental tension. Conflict interaction, especially accompanied by violent emotional reactions, relieves a person’s emotional tension and leads to a subsequent decrease in the intensity of negative emotions.

The possibility of relieving tension and “improving” relationships, which the conflict potentially contains, is purposefully used in pedagogical and psychotherapeutic practice. The technique of intensifying experiences initiates a person to change in the inner world - finding new meaning in critical life situations.

4) Conflict servessource of relationship development.

Conflict is a certain negation of old, “outdated” relationships, which leads to the formation of new relationships and correction of interaction. Conflict relationships between partners, taken to the limit, can become a moment of breakthrough for each other. The moment of breakthrough, when people have nothing to lose when they try to break through to each other, can be their last opportunity for mutual understanding. Sociologists of the Chicago school called" conflict - an opportunity to talk frankly."

5) Interpersonal conflictsserve as one of the means of personal self-affirmation, its formationactive position in interaction with othersand can be defined as socialization conflicts. The need to resolve the conflict leads to cooperation, to the concentration of efforts of participants to resolve the conflict situation, to the involvement of group members in the common life of the group. Conflict is a way of self-affirmation of personality,especially in a teenagerconflict is a necessary form of behavior to maintain status in a group.

6) Conflict can improvequality of individual activity. The change in the quality of activity of the manager and subordinate shows that the quality of the individual activity of the subordinate deteriorates significantly more often (almost four times) during the conflict compared to the quality of the manager’s activity. After the conflict, the manager has a better attitude towards fulfilling his duties than before the conflict. This is explained by the fact that a leader achieves his goals in a conflict much more often than a subordinate.

7) When defending just goals in a conflictthe opponent increases his authority among others, his attitude improvescolleagues to him. This happens four times more often than in relation to a participant in the conflict who defended dubious goals in the struggle (V.V. Sinek).

Constructive functions of conflicts in relation to society the following:

1) Conflict acts asa means of activating the social life of a group or society.Thus, B.F. Lomov believes that in joint activities “rivalry (cooperation) plays the role of a kind of “catalyst” for the development of abilities.”

Conflict supports people's social activity, helps prevent stagnation, and serves as a source of innovation and development. It has been revealed that in innovation conflicts it is the innovator who initiates them and often achieves changes.

2) Signal functionconflict is most obvious. Conflict (like pain) is a signal that something is wrong in the relationship and in ourselves (as well as in the body). This is a signal of the need for changes in relationships, which will lead to better adaptation. Since the basis for the emergence of a conflict is the denial of previous relationships between the parties, the conflict can contribute to the creation of new, more favorable conditions to which members of the team adapt more easily.

Intergroup conflicts can contribute to group integration, increased cohesion, and group solidarity.

3) Conflict optimizes interpersonal relationships,can have a positive impact on team relationships. Typically, work discipline improves, managers are more responsive to the needs of subordinates, tension in relationships is relieved, and a more friendly environment is established. This happens in almost every second conflict.

During the conflict, such forces appear that can return the social system, corroded by the conflict, to a state of balance and stability, as well as maintaining it in a stable state:

Conflict promotes a certain movement forward and prevents stagnation;

In the process of conflict, the source of disagreement is objectified and its resolution is possible; means are being found to prevent future conflicts.

4) In scientific teams, conflicts create intellectual and emotional tension, which accompanies the clash of different strategies of research behavior, whichpromotes the search for productive solutions to problems.

5) The conflict actualizes humanistic values . The conflict manifests public opinion, collective sentiments, social attitudes, exposing a contradiction,

Thus, the influence of the conflict on its participants and the social environment has a dual, contradictory nature. It is necessary to take into account for which of the participants it is constructive and for whom it is destructive.

2. Classification of types of conflicts

Conflicts are a complex socio-psychological phenomenon, very diverse and can be classified according to various criteria. From a practical point of view, the classification of conflicts is important, which allows one to navigate their specific manifestations and evaluate possible ways of resolution.

The grounds for classifying conflicts are as follows:

1) the number of subjects of conflict interaction;

2) the subject of the conflict;

3) social consequences;

1st basis for classifying conflicts:

I . By the number of subjects of conflict interaction allocate four main types of conflicts:

1) intrapersonal

2) interpersonal

3) personal-group (conflict between an individual and a group)

4) intergroup

5) social

1. Intrapersonal conflicta contradiction perceived and emotionally experienced by a person as a psychological problem that is relevant to him, requiring resolution, causing internal work of consciousness aimed at overcoming the conflict.

The parties to an intrapersonal conflict are two or more aspects of personality (for example, individual traits, types or instances).

Depending on which aspects of the personality are affected by the contradictions, there are:motivational, cognitive and role conflicts.

1) Motivational conflictsarise as a result of the struggle of motives or the simultaneous actualization of conflicting or incompatible motives.

American psychologist K. Levin identified and described 3 types of classic motivational conflicts:

1 type The “aspiration-aspiration” conflict(“approach-approach”) a state when a person has to choose one of two equally attractive, but mutually exclusive alternatives.

For example , the opportunity to attend a long-awaited concert or spend an evening with your family. This can often be observed when choosing gifts. Moreover, the motives for incompatible actions must be simultaneously updated and have equal force.

In the psychological literature, this type of motivational conflict is described as throwing a “Buridan’s donkey” between an armful of hay and an armful of straw.

Type 2 Avoidance-avoidance conflict(“delete-remove”) - involves a choice between two equally unattractive alternatives.

For example , the student’s reluctance to complete difficult homework or get a bad grade and subsequent parental punishment. Another example is toothache and fear of the dental office.

Type 3 The striving-avoidance conflict(“approximation-removal”) the same goal for a person is equally attractive and unattractive, causing both positive and negative emotions.

For example , a new promotion at work can simultaneously cause joy for new opportunities and fear for high-quality performance of duties.

These conflicts are motivational, since their content is the struggle of motives.

2) Cognitive conflicts(2nd type of intrapersonal conflicts).

The basis of cognitive conflict iscontradiction of incompatible ideas.

According to the ideas of cognitive psychology, a person strives for consistency in his system of ideas, beliefs, values, etc. If contradictions (mismatches) arise, a person experiences discomfort.

For example , a person who is considered a close friend commits an act incompatible with this. A contradiction arises between two ideas: “he is my friend” and “friends don’t act like that.”

This problem of intrapersonal conflict is describedtheory of cognitive dissonance, developed by an American researcher L. Festinger.

Basic postulatehis theory is that“cognitive system” of a person, i.e. a person’s system of knowledge (ideas) about himself and the world is in some balance or strives for coordination.

When a mismatch (imbalance) occurs, a person seeks to remove or reduce it using one of three methods:

1) can change one of the elements of the knowledge system (ideas) so that it does not contradict another.

For example , a person decides that “he is not my friend” (reconsiders his attitude towards a friend) this corresponds to the second idea “friends don’t act like that.”

2) can add new elements to the contradictory structure of knowledge (ideas), making it more consistent.

For example , may try to reconcile two incompatible ideas by including them in a new system of reasoning about his inflated demands on people, about changing times, etc.

3) can reduce the significance for a person of inconsistent ideas.

For example , reconsider your attitude towards your friend’s action, which, perhaps, is not as bad as it first seemed.

Research in psychology of the phenomena of cognitive dissonance is popular because touch upon important and interesting phenomena as a justification for our own actions (we realize that we acted contrary to our principles) or an argument for choice (we made a decision contrary to logic).

Not all of these phenomena take on the nature of a conflict, but only when overcoming dissonance is experienced as a complex psychological problem that affects ideas, beliefs, and values ​​that are significant to a person.

3) Role conflicts (3rd type of intrapersonal conflicts)affect the activity sphere of a person’s life, arise when there are contradictions between different role positions of a person, corresponding role behavior and human capabilities.

Traditionally, there are two main types of role conflicts:

1) interrole conflictwhen different role positions of a person (and, accordingly, role behavior) become incompatible. This turns into a serious psychological problem for a person.

For example , a widespread role conflict contradiction between the leading professional role and family roles (wife, mother) for a woman. The more attention a woman pays to work, the more she worries about what is happening in the family. This intrapersonal conflict can occur as a feeling of guilt, inferiority for family relationships, etc.

2) intra-role conflictcontradictions that arise between the requirements of the role and the capabilities of the individual (a person is not able to meet the requirements of the professional role of a leader, for example, he cannot make decisions quickly and without hesitation).

2. Interpersonal conflict(2nd main type of conflict based on the number of subjects of conflict interaction).

Interpersonal conflict is a situation of contradiction that arises between two (or more) individuals regarding the confrontation of values, goals, attitudes, interests, etc.

This contradiction is perceived and experienced by the participants as a significant psychological problem that requires resolution and causes activity on the part of the parties aimed at overcoming the contradictions.

There are three types of interpersonal conflict (value conflict, conflict of interests and conflict arising from violation of norms and rules of interaction):

1) value conflictthe contradiction between the participants is associated with incompatible ideas and values.

The value system reflects what is most significant for a person, what is filled with personal meaning.

For example , conflict between spouses - one of them sees an opportunity for self-realization in work, and the other worries about the values ​​of the family, what the spouses see for themselves as the meaning of the family’s existence, its tasks, etc. Family conflicts between spouses are common due to diverging goals in raising children: some have the idea of ​​strict discipline, others have the idea of ​​being spoiled.

A person’s value system may include a worldview, moral, political, and religious ideas.

A conflict of values ​​arises when people begin to claim each other’s values ​​(to convince, to impose their views, tastes, points of view).

2) conflict of interestsituations affecting the interests of the participants (their goals, plans, aspirations), which turn out to be incompatible or contradictory to each other.

For example, different plans of spouses regarding vacations or education of children (interests conflict, but a compromise can be found).

There are conflicts when interests turn out to be incompatible.

For example , participants apply for the same resource (a single ticket to a department as an incentive, a position for which several people apply). Both parties strive for the same goal, but due to the singularity or limited resources, their interests are incompatible.

3) conflicts arising from violation of norms and rules of interaction.

These rules and regulations may include:

Implicit (hidden) nature (for example, compliance with ethical standards, adherence to these standards is taken for granted);

It may be the result of a special agreement (maybe written) (for example, the agreed contribution of each participant to a common cause).

In any case, their violation may lead to disagreements and mutual claims, which will give rise to conflict.

Distinguish character conflict (is it related to people’s values, their interests, rules of interaction) - is considered important because this largely determines the nature of their resolution.

1. Personal-group conflict(3rd main type of conflict according to the number of subjects of conflict interaction) - often arises in the event of a discrepancy between an individual’s behavior and group norms and expectations.

Formal and n informal groups establish their own norms of behavior and communication. Each member of such a group must comply with them. The group views deviations from accepted norms as a negative phenomenon, and a conflict arises between the individual and the group.

Another common conflict of this type is between the group and the leader. Such conflicts occur most severely under an authoritarian leadership style.

4. Intergroup conflict.In this case, there may be a clash of behavioral stereotypes, norms, goals and/or values ​​of different groups.

Intergroup conflicts are caused by the incompatibility of goals in the struggle for limited resources (power, wealth, territory, material resources, etc.), i.e. the presence of real competition, as well as the emergence of social competition between different groups.

For example , between management and performers, between employees of different departments, between informal groups within departments, between the administration and the trade union.

Intergroup conflicts are accompanied by:

- manifestations of “deindividuation”, those. group members do not perceive other people as individuals, as distinctive individuals, but perceive them as members of another group to which negative behavior is attributed. Deindividuation makes it easier to be aggressive towards other groups;

- manifestations of social, intergroup comparison, during which they evaluate their group more highly and positively, increase their prestige and at the same time belittle, devalue another group, give it a negative assessment (“they are stupid, they are mean, they are backward”, etc.). Social comparison can initiate conflicts, as well as support and “justify oneself” in a conflict, because in order to win, one must evaluate oneself as a “positive group that does the right thing” and negatively evaluate the out-group. Often, leaders of conflicting groups strive to partially or completely isolate themselves from outside information about the out-group (“iron curtain”), then it is easier to maintain the conflict between their own and the out-group. To smooth out the conflict, it is useful to exchange real information about each other;

• manifestations of group attribution, those. tend to believe that it is “the out-group that is responsible for negative events.”

5. Social conflict- this is “a situation when the parties (subjects) of interaction pursue some of their own goals that contradict or mutually exclude each other.”

Despite the difference in approaches, three key points can be identified in existing definitions of conflict:

• firstly, social conflict is an extreme case of aggravation of social contradictions, an obvious or hidden state of confrontation, as well as a situation of interaction;
• secondly, social conflict is expressed in the clash of various social communities - classes, nations, states, social institutions, social subjects;
• thirdly, the opposing parties in a social conflict pursue their own different, opposing goals, interests and development trends, which, as a rule, contradict or mutually exclude each other.
• Thus, social conflict is a complex phenomenon that includes several aspects. But it is the presence of opposing sides with their own needs, interests and goals that is the basis of the conflict.

II. The next basis for classifying conflicts issubject of conflict.

In accordance with L. Coser's classification, conflicts can be objective (realistic) and non-objective (unrealistic).

Realistic conflictsare caused by the failure to satisfy certain requirements of the participants or by an unfair, in the opinion of one or both parties, distribution of any advantages between them and are aimed at achieving a specific result.

Unrealistic conflictshave as their goal the open expression of accumulated negative emotions, resentments, hostility, i.e. acute conflict interaction here becomes not a means of achieving a specific result, but an end in itself.

Having begun as realistic, a conflict can turn into unrealistic, for example, if the subject of the conflict is extremely significant for the participants, and they cannot find an acceptable solution to cope with the situation. This increases emotional tension and requires release from accumulated negative emotions.

Unrealistic conflicts are alwaysdysfunctional.They are much more difficult to regulate and direct in a constructive direction. A reliable way to prevent such conflicts in an organization is to create a favorable psychological atmosphere, improve the psychological culture of managers and subordinates, and master the techniques of self-regulation of emotional states in communication.

III . According to social consequences there are conflicts constructive and destructive.

Constructive Conflicts promote informed decision making and relationship development.

Conflicts that prevent effective interaction and decision making are calleddysfunctional (destructive).

Such conflicts, as a rule, are based on subjective reasons. They create social tension and lead to the destruction of the social system.

Signs of destructive conflict:

1) expansion of the conflict;

2) escalation of the conflict (i.e. the conflict becomes independent of the original causes and, even if the causes of the conflict are eliminated, the conflict itself continues);

3) an increase in costs and losses incurred by the parties to the conflict;

4) an increase in situational statements and aggressive actions of participants.