Ancient Iran. Land of Zarathushtra. Persia - what country is it now? Ancient Persia and modern Iran

Around the 6th century BC. The Persians emerged on the stage of world history. With phenomenal speed, they managed to turn from an unknown tribe into a formidable empire that lasted several hundred years.

Portrait of ancient Persians

What the ancient Iranians were like can be judged by the ideas of the peoples who lived next to them. For example, Herodotus wrote that the Persians originally wore clothing made from skins, as well as felt caps called tiaras. We didn't drink wine. They ate as much as they had. They treated gold and silver with indifference. They differed from neighboring peoples in their tall stature, strength, courage and incredible unity.

It is interesting that the Persians, even after becoming a great power, tried to follow the behests of their ancestors.

For example, during the coronation ceremony, the newly-crowned king had to wear simple clothes, eat some dried figs and wash them down with sour milk.

At the same time, the Persians could marry as many women as they saw fit. And this does not take into account concubines and slaves. It is also interesting that the laws did not prohibit marrying even close relatives, be they sisters or nieces. In addition, there was a custom according to which a man did not show his women to strangers. Plutarch wrote about this, pointing out that the Persians hid from prying eyes not only their wives, but even concubines and slaves. And if they needed to be transported somewhere, then closed carts were used. This custom is reflected in art. For example, in the ruins of Persepolis, archaeologists were unable to find a single relief with a female image.

Achaemenid Dynasty

The era of Persian omnipotence began with King Cyrus II, who belonged to the Achaemenid family. He managed to quickly subjugate the once mighty Media and several smaller states. After this, the king's gaze fell on Babylon.

The war with Babylon turned out to be just as fast. In 539 BC. Cyrus marched with his army and fought with the enemy army near the city of Opis. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Babylonians. Then the large Sippar was captured, and soon Babylon itself.

After this triumph, Cyrus decided to curb the wild tribes in the east, who could disturb the borders of his power with their raids. The king fought with the nomads for several years, until he himself died in 530 BC.

The following kings - Cambyses and Darius - continued the work of their predecessor and further expanded the territory of the state.

So, Cambyses managed to capture Egypt and make it one of the satrapies.

By the time of Darius' death (485 BC), the Persian Empire occupied a vast territory. In the west, its borders abutted the Aegean Sea, in the east - India. In the north, the power of the Achaemenids extended to the deserted deserts of Central Asia, and in the south - to the rapids of the Nile. It is safe to say that Persia at that time subjugated almost the entire civilized world.

But like any empire that possessed such a vast territory, it was constantly tormented by internal unrest and uprisings of conquered peoples. The Achaemenid dynasty collapsed in the 4th century BC, unable to withstand the test of the army of Alexander the Great.

Sasanian power

The Persian Empire was destroyed, and its capital, Persepolis, was sacked and burned. The last of the kings of the Achaemenid dynasty, Darius III, and his retinue went to Bactria, hoping to gather a new army there. But Alexander managed to catch up with the fugitive. To avoid being captured, Darius ordered his satraps to kill him and to flee further.

After the death of the king in conquered Persia, the era of Hellenism began. For ordinary Persians it was like death.

After all, there was not just a change of ruler, they were captured by the hated Greeks, who quickly and harshly began to replace the original Persian customs with their own, and therefore completely alien.

Even the arrival of the Parthian tribe, which occurred in the 2nd century BC. didn't change anything. The nomadic Iranian tribe managed to expel the Greeks from the territory of ancient Persia, but they themselves fell under the influence of their culture. Therefore, even under Parthian rule, exclusively Greek was used on coins and in official documents.

But the worst thing was that the temples were built in the Greek image and likeness. And most Persians considered this blasphemy and sacrilege.

After all, Zarathushtra bequeathed to their ancestors that it was impossible to worship idols. Only the unquenchable flame should be considered as a symbol of God, and sacrifices should be made to it. But the Persians were unable to change anything.

Therefore, out of impotent anger, they called all the buildings of the Hellenic period “buildings of the Dragon.”

The Persians tolerated Greek culture until 226 AD. But eventually the cup overflowed. The rebellion was launched by the ruler of Pars, Ardashir, and he managed to overthrow the Parthian dynasty. This moment is considered to be the birth of the second Persian power, headed by representatives of the Sassanid dynasty.

Unlike the Parthians, they tried in every possible way to revive the very ancient culture of Persia, which was started by Cyrus. But this turned out to be difficult, since Greek dominance almost completely erased the Achaemenid heritage from memory. Therefore, the society about which the Zoroastrian priests spoke was chosen as a “guiding star” for the revived state. And it so happened that the Sassanids tried to revive a culture that in reality never existed. And religion came first.

But the people of Persia enthusiastically accepted the ideas of the new rulers. Therefore, under the Sassanids, the entire Hellenic culture began to quickly dissolve: temples were destroyed, and the Greek language ceased to be official. Instead of statues of Zeus, the Persians began to build fire altars.

Under the Sassanids (3rd century AD), there was another clash with the hostile Western world - the Roman Empire. But this time this confrontation ended in victory for the Persians. In honor of the significant event, King Shapur I ordered a bas-relief to be carved into the rocks, depicting his triumph over the Roman Emperor Valerian.

The capital of Persia was the city of Ctesiphon, once built by the Parthians. But the Persians essentially “combed” it to match their newfound culture.

Persia began to develop rapidly thanks to the competent use of land irrigation systems. Under the Sassanids, the territory of ancient Persia, as well as Mesopotamia, became literally permeated with underground water pipelines made of clay pipes (kariza). Their cleaning was carried out using wells dug at intervals of ten kilometers. This modernization allowed Persia to successfully grow cotton, sugar cane and develop winemaking. At the same time, Persia became perhaps the world's main supplier of a wide variety of fabrics: from wool to silk.

Death of an Empire

The history of the Sasanian dynasty ended after a fierce and bloody war with the Arabs, which lasted almost twenty years (633-651). It is difficult to blame the last king Yezdeget III for anything. He fought the invaders until the very end, and was not going to give up. But Yazdeget died ingloriously - near Merv, he was stabbed to death by a miller in his sleep, having encroached on the king’s jewelry.

But even after the official victory, the Persians kept uprisings, albeit unsuccessfully. Even internal unrest in the caliphate did not allow the ancient people to gain freedom. Only Gugan and Tabaristan lasted the longest - the last fragments of a once great power. But they too were captured by the Arabs in 717 and 760, respectively.

And although the Islamization of Iran was successful, the Arabs were never able to assimilate the Persians, who managed to maintain their self-identity. Closer to the 900s, under the new Samanid dynasty, they managed to gain independence. True, Persia was no longer able to become a great power again.

In the middle of the 6th century. BC e. The Persians entered the arena of world history - a mysterious tribe that the previously civilized peoples of the Middle East knew only from hearsay.

About morals and customs ancient Persians known from the writings of the peoples who lived next to them. In addition to their powerful growth and physical development, the Persians had a will, hardened in the fight against the harsh climate and the dangers of nomadic life in the mountains and steppes. At that time they were famous for their moderate lifestyle, temperance, strength, courage and unity.

According to Herodotus, the Persians wore clothes made from animal skins and felt tiaras (caps), did not drink wine, ate not as much as they wanted, but as much as they had. They were indifferent to silver and gold.

Simplicity and modesty in food and clothing remained one of the main virtues even during the period of Persian rule over, when they began to dress in luxurious Median outfits, wear gold necklaces and bracelets, when fresh fish from distant seas was brought to the table of the Persian kings and nobility, fruits from Babylonia and Syria. Even then, during the coronation rites of the Persian kings, the Achaemenid who ascended the throne had to put on the clothes that he had not worn as king, eat some dried figs and drink a cup of sour milk.

The ancient Persians were allowed to have many wives, as well as concubines, and to marry close relatives, such as nieces and half-sisters. Ancient Persian customs forbade women to show themselves to strangers (among the numerous reliefs in Persepolis there is not a single image of a woman). The ancient historian Plutarch wrote that the Persians are characterized by wild jealousy not only towards their wives. They even kept slaves and concubines locked up so that outsiders could not see them, and they transported them in closed carts.

History of ancient Persia

The Persian king Cyrus II from the Achaemenid clan conquered Media and many other countries in a short time and had a huge and well-armed army, which began to prepare for a campaign against Babylonia. A new force appeared in Western Asia, which in a short time managed to - in just a few decades- completely change the political map of the Middle East.

Babylonia and Egypt abandoned many years of hostile policies towards each other, for the rulers of both countries were well aware of the need to prepare for war with the Persian Empire. The outbreak of war was only a matter of time.

The campaign against the Persians began in 539 BC. e. Decisive battle between the Persians and Babylonians occurred near the city of Opis on the Tigris River. Cyrus won a complete victory here, soon his troops took the well-fortified city of Sippar, and the Persians captured Babylon without a fight.

After this, the Persian ruler's gaze turned to the East, where for several years he waged a grueling war with nomadic tribes and where he eventually died in 530 BC. e.

Cyrus's successors, Cambyses and Darius, completed the work he had begun. in 524-523 BC e. Cambyses' campaign against Egypt took place, as a result of which Achaemenid power was established on the banks of the Nile. turned into one of the satrapies of the new empire. Darius continued to strengthen the eastern and western borders of the empire. Towards the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 485 BC. e., the Persian power dominated over a vast territory from the Aegean Sea in the west to India in the east and from the deserts of Central Asia in the north to the rapids of the Nile in the south. The Achaemenids (Persians) united almost the entire civilized world known to them and ruled it until the 4th century. BC e., when their power was broken and conquered by the military genius of Alexander the Great.

Chronology of the rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty:

• Achaemen, 600s. BC.
• Theispes, 600s BC.
• Cyrus I, 640 - 580 BC.
• Cambyses I, 580 - 559 BC.
• Cyrus II the Great, 559 - 530 BC.
• Cambyses II, 530 - 522 BC.
• Bardia, 522 BC
• Darius I, 522 - 486 BC.
• Xerxes I, 485 - 465 BC.
• Artaxerxes I, 465 - 424 BC.
• Xerxes II, 424 BC
• Secudian, 424 - 423 BC.
• Darius II, 423 - 404 BC.
• Artaxerxes II, 404 - 358 BC.
• Artaxerxes III, 358 - 338 BC.
• Artaxerxes IV Arses, 338 - 336 BC.
• Darius III, 336 - 330 BC.
• Artaxerxes V Bessus, 330 - 329 BC.

Map of the Persian Empire

The Aryan tribes - the eastern branch of the Indo-Europeans - by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. inhabited almost the entire territory of present-day Iran. Self the word "Iran" is the modern form of the name "Ariana", i.e. country of the Aryans. Initially, these were warlike tribes of semi-nomadic cattle breeders who fought on war chariots. Some of the Aryans migrated even earlier and captured it, giving rise to the Indo-Aryan culture. Other Aryan tribes, closer to the Iranians, remained nomadic in Central Asia and the northern steppes - the Sakas, Sarmatians, etc. The Iranians themselves, having settled on the fertile lands of the Iranian Plateau, gradually abandoned their nomadic life and took up farming, adopting the skills of the Iranians. It reached a high level already in the XI-VIII centuries. BC e. Iranian craft. His monument is the famous “Luristan bronzes” - skillfully made weapons and household items with images of mythical and real-life animals.

"Luristan Bronzes"- a cultural monument of Western Iran. It was here, in close proximity and confrontation, that the most powerful Iranian kingdoms arose. The first of them Media has strengthened(in northwestern Iran). The Median kings took part in the destruction of Assyria. The history of their state is well known from written monuments. But Median monuments of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. very poorly studied. Even the capital of the country, the city of Ecbatana, has not yet been found. What is known is that it was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Hamadan. Nevertheless, two Median fortresses already studied by archaeologists from the times of the fight against Assyria speak of a fairly high culture of the Medes.

In 553 BC. e. Cyrus (Kurush) II, the king of the subordinate Persian tribe from the Achaemenid clan, rebelled against the Medes. In 550 BC. e. Cyrus united the Iranians under his rule and led them to conquer the world. In 546 BC. e. he conquered Asia Minor, and in 538 BC. e. fell The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered, and under King Darius I at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. before. n. e. Persian power reached its greatest expansion and prosperity.

Monuments of its greatness are the royal capitals excavated by archaeologists - the most famous and best researched monuments of Persian culture. The oldest of them is Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus.

Sasanian Revival - Sasanian Empire

In 331-330. BC e. The famous conqueror Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire. In retaliation for Athens, once devastated by the Persians, Greek Macedonian soldiers brutally plundered and burned Persepolis. The Achaemenid dynasty came to an end. The period of Greco-Macedonian rule over the East began, which is usually called the Hellenistic era.

For the Iranians, the conquest was a disaster. Power over all neighbors was replaced by humiliated submission to long-time enemies - the Greeks. The traditions of Iranian culture, already shaken by the desire of kings and nobles to imitate the vanquished in luxury, were now completely trampled upon. Little changed after the liberation of the country by the nomadic Iranian tribe of the Parthians. The Parthians expelled the Greeks from Iran in the 2nd century. BC e., but they themselves borrowed a lot from Greek culture. The Greek language is still used on the coins and inscriptions of their kings. Temples are still being built with numerous statues, according to Greek models, which seemed blasphemous to many Iranians. In ancient times, Zarathushtra forbade the worship of idols, commanding that an unquenchable flame be venerated as a symbol of deity and sacrifices made to it. It was the religious humiliation that was greatest, and it was not for nothing that the cities built by the Greek conquerors were later called “Dragon buildings” in Iran.

In 226 AD e. The rebel ruler of Pars, who bore the ancient royal name Ardashir (Artaxerxes), overthrew the Parthian dynasty. The second story has begun Persian Empire - Sassanid Empire, the dynasty to which the winner belonged.

The Sassanians sought to revive the culture of ancient Iran. The very history of the Achaemenid state had by that time become a vague legend. So, the society that was described in the legends of the Zoroastrian Mobed priests was put forward as an ideal. The Sassanians built, in fact, a culture that had never existed in the past, thoroughly imbued with a religious idea. This had little in common with the era of the Achaemenids, who willingly adopted the customs of the conquered tribes.

Under the Sassanids, the Iranian decisively triumphed over the Hellenic. Greek temples completely disappear, the Greek language goes out of official use. The broken statues of Zeus (who was identified with Ahura Mazda under the Parthians) are replaced by faceless altars of fire. Naqsh-i-Rustem is decorated with new reliefs and inscriptions. In the 3rd century. The second Sasanian king Shapur I ordered his victory over the Roman emperor Valerian to be carved on the rocks. On the reliefs of the kings, a bird-shaped farn is overshadowed - a sign of divine protection.

Capital of Persia became the city of Ctesiphon, built by the Parthians next to the emptying Babylon. Under the Sassanids, new palace complexes were built in Ctesiphon and huge (up to 120 hectares) royal parks were laid out. The most famous of the Sasanian palaces is Tak-i-Kisra, the palace of King Khosrow I, who ruled in the 6th century. Along with monumental reliefs, palaces were now decorated with delicate carved ornaments in lime mixture.

Under the Sassanids, the irrigation system of Iranian and Mesopotamian lands was improved. In the VI century. The country was covered by a network of kariz (underground water pipelines with clay pipes), stretching up to 40 km. The cleaning of the carises was carried out through special wells dug every 10 m. The carises served for a long time and ensured the rapid development of agriculture in Iran during the Sasanian era. It was then that cotton and sugar cane began to be grown in Iran, and gardening and winemaking developed. At the same time, Iran became one of the suppliers of its own fabrics - both woolen, linen and silk.

Sasanian power was much smaller Achaemenid, covered only Iran itself, part of the lands of Central Asia, the territories of present-day Iraq, Armenia and Azerbaijan. She had to fight for a long time, first with Rome, then with the Byzantine Empire. Despite all this, the Sassanids lasted longer than the Achaemenids - more than four centuries. Ultimately, the state, exhausted by continuous wars in the West, was engulfed in a struggle for power. The Arabs took advantage of this, bringing a new faith - Islam - by force of arms. In 633-651. after a fierce war they conquered Persia. So it was over with the ancient Persian state and ancient Iranian culture.

Persian system of government

The ancient Greeks, who became acquainted with the organization of government in the Achaemenid Empire, admired the wisdom and foresight of the Persian kings. In their opinion, this organization was the pinnacle of development of the monarchical form of government.

The Persian kingdom was divided into large provinces, called satrapies by the title of their rulers - satraps (Persian, “kshatra-pavan” - “guardian of the region”). Usually there were 20 of them, but this number fluctuated, since sometimes the management of two or more satrapies was entrusted to one person and, conversely, one region was divided into several. This pursued mainly taxation purposes, but sometimes the characteristics of the peoples inhabiting them and historical characteristics were also taken into account. Satraps and rulers of smaller regions were not the only representatives of local government. In addition to them, in many provinces there were hereditary local kings or ruling priests, as well as free cities and, finally, “benefactors” who received cities and districts for life, or even hereditary possession. These kings, rulers and high priests differed in position from satraps only in that they were hereditary and had a historical and national connection with the population, who saw them as bearers of ancient traditions. They independently carried out internal governance, retained local law, a system of measures, language, imposed taxes and duties, but were under the constant control of satraps, who could often intervene in the affairs of the regions, especially during unrest and unrest. Satraps also resolved border disputes between cities and regions, litigation in cases where the participants were citizens of various urban communities or various vassal regions, and regulated political relations. Local rulers, like satraps, had the right to communicate directly with the central government, and some of them, such as the kings of the Phoenician cities, Cilicia, and Greek tyrants, maintained their own army and fleet, which they personally commanded, accompanying the Persian army on large campaigns or performing military duties. orders from the king. However, the satrap could at any time demand these troops for the royal service and place his own garrison in the possessions of local rulers. The main command over the provincial troops also belonged to him. The satrap was even allowed to recruit soldiers and mercenaries independently and at his own expense. He was, as they would call him in a more recent era, the governor-general of his satrapy, ensuring its internal and external security.

The highest command of the troops was carried out by the commanders of four or, as during the subjugation of Egypt, five military districts into which the kingdom was divided.

Persian system of government provides an example of the victors’ amazing respect for local customs and the rights of conquered peoples. In Babylonia, for example, all documents from the times of Persian rule are legally no different from those dating back to the period of independence. The same thing happened in Egypt and Judea. In Egypt, the Persians left the same not only the division into nomes, but also the sovereign surnames, the location of troops and garrisons, as well as the tax immunity of temples and priesthood. Of course, the central government and the satrap could intervene at any time and decide matters at their own discretion, but for the most part it was enough for them if the country was calm, taxes were received regularly, and the troops were in order.

Such a management system did not emerge in the Middle East right away. For example, initially in the conquered territories it relied only on the force of arms and intimidation. The areas taken “by battle” were included directly in the House of Ashur - the central region. Those who surrendered to the mercy of the winner often preserved their local dynasty. But over time, this system turned out to be poorly suited for managing the expanding state. Reorganization of management carried out by King Tiglath-pileser III in the UNT century. BC e., in addition to the policy of forced relocations, it also changed the system of governing the regions of the empire. The kings tried to prevent the emergence of overly powerful clans. To prevent the creation of hereditary possessions and new dynasties among the governors of the regions, the most important posts eunuchs were often appointed. In addition, although major officials received huge land holdings, they did not constitute a single tract, but were scattered throughout the country.

But still, the main support of Assyrian rule, as well as Babylonian rule later, was the army. Military garrisons literally surrounded the entire country. Taking into account the experience of their predecessors, the Achaemenids added to the force of arms the idea of ​​a “kingdom of countries,” that is, a reasonable combination of local characteristics with the interests of the central government.

The vast state needed the means of communication necessary to control the central government over local officials and rulers. The language of the Persian office, in which even royal decrees were issued, was Aramaic. This is explained by the fact that it was actually in common use in Assyria and Babylonia back in Assyrian times. The conquests of the western regions, Syria and Palestine, by the Assyrian and Babylonian kings further contributed to its spread. This language gradually took the place of ancient Akkadian cuneiform in international relations; it was even used on the coins of the Asia Minor satraps of the Persian king.

Another feature of the Persian Empire that delighted the Greeks was there were beautiful roads, described by Herodotus and Xenophon in stories about the campaigns of King Cyrus. The most famous were the so-called Royal, which went from Ephesus in Asia Minor, off the coast of the Aegean Sea, east to Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian state, through the Euphrates, Armenia and Assyria along the Tigris River; the road leading from Babylonia through the Zagros mountains to the east to another capital of Persia - Ecbatana, and from here to the Bactrian and Indian border; the road from the Issky Gulf of the Mediterranean Sea to Sinop on the Black Sea, crossing Asia Minor, etc.

These roads were not only built by the Persians. Most of them existed in Assyrian and even earlier times. The beginning of the construction of the Royal Road, which was the main artery of the Persian monarchy, probably dates back to the era of the Hittite kingdom, which was located in Asia Minor on the way from Mesopotamia and Syria to Europe. Sardis, the capital of Lydia conquered by the Medes, was connected by a road to another large city - Pteria. From there the road went to the Euphrates. Herodotus, speaking about the Lydians, calls them the first shopkeepers, which was natural for the owners of the road between Europe and Babylon. The Persians continued this route from Babylonia further east, to their capitals, improved it and adapted it not only for trade purposes, but also for state needs - mail.

The Persian kingdom also took advantage of another invention of the Lydians - coins. Until the 7th century. BC e. Subsistence farming dominated throughout the East, monetary circulation was just beginning to emerge: the role of money was played by metal ingots of a certain weight and shape. These could be rings, plates, mugs without embossing or images. The weight was different everywhere, and therefore, outside the place of origin, the ingot simply lost the value of a coin and had to be weighed again each time, i.e., it became an ordinary commodity. On the border between Europe and Asia, the Lydian kings were the first to begin minting state coins of clearly defined weight and denomination. From here the use of such coins spread throughout Asia Minor, Cyprus and Palestine. The ancient trading countries -, and - retained the old system for a very long time. They began minting coins after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and before that they used coins made in Asia Minor.

Establishing a unified tax system, the Persian kings could not do without minting coins; In addition, the needs of the state, which kept mercenaries, as well as the unprecedented growth of international trade, necessitated the need for a single coin. And a gold coin was introduced into the kingdom, and only the government had the right to mint it; local rulers, cities and satraps received the right to mint only silver and copper coins for payment to mercenaries, which remained an ordinary commodity outside their region.

So, by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. In the Middle East, through the efforts of many generations and many peoples, a civilization arose that even the freedom-loving Greeks was considered ideal. Here is what the ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote: “Wherever the king lives, wherever he goes, he makes sure that everywhere there are gardens, called paradises, full of everything beautiful and good that the earth can produce. He spends most of his time in them, unless the time of year prevents this... Some say that when the king gives gifts, those who distinguished themselves in war are called first, because it is useless to plow a lot if there is no one to protect, and then those who cultivate the land in the best way, for the strong could not exist if there were no workers...".

It is not surprising that this civilization developed in Western Asia. It not only arose earlier than others, but also developed faster and more energetically, had the most favorable conditions for its development thanks to constant contacts with neighbors and the exchange of innovations. Here, more often than in other ancient centers of world culture, new ideas arose and important discoveries were made in almost all areas of production and culture. Potter's wheel and wheel, bronze and iron making, war chariot as a fundamentally new means of warfare, various forms of writing from pictograms to the alphabet - all this and much more genetically goes back to Western Asia, from where these innovations spread throughout the rest of the world, including other centers of primary civilization.

Persians, Indo-European. people living in the southeast. Elama. The founder of the Persian kingdom (dependent on the Medes) in Anshan is considered to be Chishpish, the son of Achaemen, therefore for another Persian. king The name of the Achaemenids was established by the dynasty. see Cyrus II the Great (559 530 BC ... Brockhaus Biblical Encyclopedia

Modern encyclopedia

PERSIANS, Persians, units. persian, persian, husband The people who make up the main population of Iran (formerly known as Persia). Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 … Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

PERSIANS, ov, units. Persian, a, husband. and (obsolete) Persian, ah, husband. Former name for Iranians; now the name of the Farsi nation, which makes up about half of Iran's population. | wives Persian, I. | adj. Persian, aya, oh. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Population of Persia. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Noun, number of synonyms: 1 Persians (1) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary

Persians- (self-names Farsi, Irani) people with a total number of 28,750 thousand people, living mainly in the territory of Iran (28,000 thousand people). Other countries of settlement: Iraq 150 thousand people, USA 130 thousand people, Saudi Arabia 100 thousand people, Kuwait 85 thousand... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Farsi (self-called Irani, plural Iranian), a nation constituting approx. half of the population of Iran (according to the 1st general population census of the country at the end of 1956, the population was about 9 million people; according to an estimate for 1963, 10.5 million people). They speak Persian (Farsi) language... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia

Ov; pl. Nation, main population of Iran (Persia); representatives of this nation. ◁ Persian, a; m. Persianka, and; pl. genus. nok, dat. nkam; and. Persian (see). * * * Persians (Farsi, self-name of Iran), people in Iran (about 21.3 million people). General... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Persians- PERSIANS, ov, plural (singular Persian, a and Old Persian, a, m). The people, the main population of the central and eastern part of Iran (before 1935, Persia), states in the South-West. Asia; the people belonging to this nation are farces; Persian Farsi, Iranian group... ... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns

Books

• Persians. Book one of the historical novel “Scythians”, Nikolai Sokolov. The first book tells about the coup d'etat of 522 BC in Persia. After the murder of the legitimate king of Bardiya, riots and uprisings began in the country, and in the military... eBook
• Persians and Medes. Subjects of the Achaemenid Empire, William Coolican. The book explores the history of the powerful clan of Persians and Medes, subjects of an empire whose center was the palace of Persepolis. The author presents an impressive panorama of a mature civilization...

In ancient times, Persia became the center of one of the greatest empires in history, stretching from Egypt to the Indus River. It included all previous empires - the Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Hittites. The later empire of Alexander the Great included almost no territories that had not previously belonged to the Persians, and it was smaller than Persia under King Darius.

Since its inception in the 6th century. BC. before the conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. for two and a half centuries, Persia occupied a dominant position in the Ancient World. Greek rule lasted about a hundred years, and after its fall the Persian power was reborn under two local dynasties: the Arsacids (Parthian Kingdom) and the Sassanids (New Persian Kingdom). For more than seven centuries they kept first Rome and then Byzantium in fear, until in the 7th century. AD The Sassanid state was not conquered by Islamic conquerors.

Geography of the empire.

The lands inhabited by the ancient Persians only approximately coincide with the borders of modern Iran. In ancient times, such borders simply did not exist. There were periods when the Persian kings were the rulers of most of the then known world, at other times the main cities of the empire were in Mesopotamia, to the west of Persia proper, and it also happened that the entire territory of the kingdom was divided between warring local rulers.

A significant part of the territory of Persia is occupied by a high, arid highland (1200 m), intersected by mountain ranges with individual peaks reaching 5500 m. In the west and north are the Zagros and Elborz mountain ranges, which frame the highlands in the shape of the letter V, leaving it open to the east. The western and northern borders of the plateau approximately coincide with the current borders of Iran, but in the east it extends beyond the country, occupying part of the territory of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Three regions are isolated from the plateau: the coast of the Caspian Sea, the coast of the Persian Gulf and the southwestern plains, which are the eastern continuation of the Mesopotamian lowland.

Directly west of Persia lies Mesopotamia, home to the world's most ancient civilizations. The Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria had a significant influence on the early culture of Persia. And although the Persian conquests ended almost three thousand years after the heyday of Mesopotamia, Persia in many ways became the heir to Mesopotamian civilization. Most of the most important cities of the Persian Empire were located in Mesopotamia, and Persian history is largely a continuation of Mesopotamian history.

Persia lies on the routes of the earliest migrations from Central Asia. Slowly moving west, the settlers skirted the northern tip of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan and turned south and west, where through the more accessible areas of Khorasan, southeast of the Caspian Sea, they entered the Iranian plateau south of the Alborz Mountains. Centuries later, the main trade artery ran parallel to the earlier route, connecting the Far East with the Mediterranean and ensuring the administration of the empire and the movement of troops. At the western end of the highlands it descended onto the plains of Mesopotamia. Other important routes linked the southeastern plains through rugged mountains to the highlands proper.

Off the few main roads, thousands of agricultural communities were scattered along long, narrow mountain valleys. They led a subsistence economy; due to their isolation from their neighbors, many of them remained aloof from wars and invasions, and for many centuries they carried out an important mission to preserve the continuity of culture, so characteristic of the ancient history of Persia.

STORY

Ancient Iran.

It is known that the most ancient inhabitants of Iran had a different origin than the Persians and related peoples, who created civilizations on the Iranian plateau, as well as the Semites and Sumerians, whose civilizations arose in Mesopotamia. During excavations in caves near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, human skeletons dating back to the 8th millennium BC were discovered. In the north-west of Iran, in the town of Goy-Tepe, skulls of people who lived in the 3rd millennium BC were found.

Scientists have proposed calling the indigenous population Caspians, which indicates a geographical connection with the peoples who inhabited the Caucasus Mountains to the west of the Caspian Sea. The Caucasian tribes themselves, as is known, migrated to more southern regions, to the highlands. The "Caspian" type appears to have survived in a greatly weakened form among the nomadic tribes of the Lurs in modern Iran.

For the archeology of the Middle East, the central question is the dating of the appearance of agricultural settlements here. Monuments of material culture and other evidence found in the Caspian caves indicate that the tribes inhabiting the region from the 8th to the 5th millennium BC. engaged mainly in hunting, then switched to cattle breeding, which, in turn, approx. IV millennium BC replaced by agriculture. Permanent settlements appeared in the western part of the highlands before the 3rd millennium BC, and most likely in the 5th millennium BC. The main settlements include Sialk, Goy-Tepe, Gissar, but the largest was Susa, which later became the capital of the Persian state. In these small villages, mud huts were crowded together along winding narrow streets. The dead were buried either under the floor of the house or in the cemetery in a crouched (“uterine”) position. The reconstruction of the life of the ancient inhabitants of the highlands was carried out on the basis of the study of utensils, tools and decorations that were placed in the graves to provide the deceased with everything necessary for the afterlife.

The development of culture in prehistoric Iran occurred progressively over many centuries. As in Mesopotamia, large brick houses began to be built here, objects were made from cast copper, and then from cast bronze. Seals made of stone with a carved pattern appeared, which were evidence of the emergence of private property. The discovery of large jars for storing food suggests that supplies were made for the period between harvests. Among the finds from all periods there are figurines of the mother goddess, often depicted with her husband, who was both her husband and son.

The most remarkable thing is the huge variety of painted clay products, the walls of some of them are no thicker than the shell of a chicken egg. The figurines of birds and animals depicted in profile testify to the talent of prehistoric artisans. Some clay products depict the man himself, engaged in hunting or performing some kind of rituals. Around 1200–800 BC painted pottery gives way to monochromatic ones - red, black or gray, which is explained by the invasion of tribes from as yet unidentified regions. Ceramics of the same type were found very far from Iran - in China.

Early history.

The historical era begins on the Iranian plateau at the end of the 4th millennium BC. Most of the information about the descendants of the ancient tribes who lived on the eastern borders of Mesopotamia, in the Zagros Mountains, is drawn from the Mesopotamian chronicles. (There is no information in the annals about the tribes that inhabited the central and eastern regions of the Iranian plateau, because they had no connections with the Mesopotamian kingdoms.) The largest of the peoples inhabiting the Zagros were the Elamites, who captured the ancient city of Susa, located on the plain at the foot of Zagros, and founded the powerful and prosperous state of Elam there. The Elamite records began to be compiled ca. 3000 BC and lasted for two thousand years. Further to the north lived the Kassites, barbarian tribes of horsemen, who by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. conquered Babylonia. The Kassites adopted the civilization of the Babylonians and ruled southern Mesopotamia for several centuries. Less important were the Northern Zagros tribes, the Lullubei and the Gutians, who lived in the area where the great Trans-Asian trade route descended from the western tip of the Iranian plateau onto the plain.

Invasion of the Aryans and the Kingdom of Media.

Starting from the 2nd millennium BC. The Iranian plateau was hit one after another by waves of tribal invasions from Central Asia. These were Aryans, Indo-Iranian tribes who spoke dialects that were the proto-languages ​​of the current languages ​​of the Iranian Plateau and Northern India. They gave Iran its name (“homeland of the Aryans”). The first wave of conquerors arrived ca. 1500 BC One group of Aryans settled in the west of the Iranian plateau, where they founded the state of Mitanni, another group - in the south among the Kassites. However, the main flow of Aryans passed Iran, turned sharply to the south, crossed the Hindu Kush and invaded Northern India.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. along the same route, a second wave of aliens, Iranian tribes themselves, arrived on the Iranian plateau, and much more numerous. Some of the Iranian tribes - the Sogdians, Scythians, Saks, Parthians and Bactrians - retained a nomadic way of life, others went beyond the highlands, but two tribes, the Medes and Persians (Parsis), settled in the valleys of the Zagros range, mixed with the local population and adopted their political , religious and cultural traditions. The Medes settled in the vicinity of Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). The Persians settled somewhat further south, on the plains of Elam and in the mountainous region adjacent to the Persian Gulf, which later received the name Persida (Parsa or Fars). It is possible that the Persians initially settled northwest of the Medes, west of Lake Rezaie (Urmia), and only later moved south under pressure from Assyria, which was then experiencing the peak of its power. On some Assyrian bas-reliefs of the 9th and 8th centuries. BC. battles with the Medes and Persians are depicted.

The Median kingdom with its capital in Ecbatana gradually gained strength. In 612 BC. the Median king Cyaxares (reigned from 625 to 585 BC) entered into an alliance with Babylonia, captured Nineveh and crushed the Assyrian power. The Median kingdom extended from Asia Minor (modern Türkiye) almost to the Indus River. During just one reign, Media turned from a small tributary principality into the strongest power in the Middle East.

Persian Achaemenid state.

The power of the Medes did not last longer than two generations. The Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids (named after its founder Achaemen) began to dominate Pars even under the Medes. In 553 BC Cyrus II the Great, the Achaemenid ruler of Parsa, led a revolt against the Median king Astyages, son of Cyaxares, which created a powerful alliance of Medes and Persians. The new power threatened the entire Middle East. In 546 BC King Croesus of Lydia led a coalition directed against King Cyrus, which, in addition to the Lydians, included the Babylonians, Egyptians and Spartans. According to legend, an oracle predicted to the Lydian king that the war would end in the collapse of the great state. The delighted Croesus did not even bother to ask which state was meant. The war ended with the victory of Cyrus, who pursued Croesus all the way to Lydia and captured him there. In 539 BC Cyrus occupied Babylonia, and by the end of his reign expanded the borders of the state from the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern outskirts of the Iranian plateau, making Pasargadae, a city in southwestern Iran, the capital.

Organization of the Achaemenid state.

Apart from a few brief Achaemenid inscriptions, we draw the main information about the Achaemenid state from the works of ancient Greek historians. Even the names of the Persian kings entered historiography as they were written by the ancient Greeks. For example, the names of the kings known today as Cyaxares, Cyrus and Xerxes are pronounced in Persian as Uvakhshtra, Kurush and Khshayarshan.

The main city of the state was Susa. Babylon and Ecbatana were considered administrative centers, and Persepolis the center of ritual and spiritual life. The state was divided into twenty satrapies, or provinces, headed by satraps. Representatives of the Persian nobility became satraps, and the position itself was inherited. This combination of the power of an absolute monarch and semi-independent governors was a characteristic feature of the country's political structure for many centuries.

All provinces were connected by postal roads, the most significant of which, the “royal road,” 2,400 km long, ran from Susa to the Mediterranean coast. Despite the fact that a single administrative system, a single currency and a single official language were introduced throughout the empire, many subject peoples retained their customs, religion and local rulers. The period of Achaemenid rule was characterized by tolerance. The long years of peace under the Persians favored the development of cities, trade and agriculture. Iran was experiencing its Golden Age.

The Persian army differed in composition and tactics from earlier armies, which were characterized by chariots and infantry. The main striking force of the Persian troops were horse archers, who bombarded the enemy with a cloud of arrows without coming into direct contact with him. The army consisted of six corps of 60,000 warriors each and elite formations of 10,000 people, selected from members of the noblest families and called “immortals”; They also constituted the king’s personal guard. However, during the campaigns in Greece, as well as during the reign of the last king from the Achaemenid dynasty, Darius III, a huge, poorly controlled mass of horsemen, chariots and infantrymen went into battle, unable to maneuver in small spaces and often significantly inferior to the disciplined infantry of the Greeks.

The Achaemenids were very proud of their origins. The Behistun inscription, carved on the rock by order of Darius I, reads: “I, Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of the countries inhabited by all peoples, have long been the king of this great land, extending even further, son of Hystaspes, Achaemenid, Persian, son Persians, Aryans, and my ancestors were Aryans.” However, the Achaemenid civilization was a conglomeration of customs, culture, social institutions and ideas that existed in all parts of the Ancient World. At that time East and West came into direct contact for the first time, and the resulting exchange of ideas was never interrupted thereafter.

Hellenic dominion.

Weakened by endless revolts, uprisings and civil strife, the Achaemenid state could not resist the armies of Alexander the Great. The Macedonians landed on the Asian continent in 334 BC, defeated Persian troops on the Granik River and twice defeated huge armies under the command of the mediocre Darius III - at the Battle of Issus (333 BC) in southwest Asia Minor and under Gaugamela (331 BC) in Mesopotamia. Having captured Babylon and Susa, Alexander headed to Persepolis and set it on fire, apparently in retaliation for Athens burned by the Persians. Continuing east, he found the body of Darius III, killed by his own soldiers. Alexander spent more than four years in the east of the Iranian plateau, founding numerous Greek colonies. He then turned south and conquered the Persian provinces in what is now West Pakistan. After this, he went on a campaign to the Indus Valley. Back to 325 BC in Susa, Alexander began to actively encourage his soldiers to take Persian wives, cherishing the idea of ​​​​a unified state of Macedonians and Persians. In 323 BC Alexander, aged 33, died of fever in Babylon. The vast territory he conquered was immediately divided between his military leaders, who competed with each other. And although Alexander the Great’s plan to merge Greek and Persian culture was never realized, the numerous colonies founded by him and his successors maintained the originality of their culture for centuries and had a significant influence on local peoples and their art.

After the death of Alexander the Great, the Iranian plateau became part of the Seleucid state, which received its name from one of its generals. Soon the local nobility began to fight for independence. In the satrapy of Parthia, located southeast of the Caspian Sea in the area known as Khorasan, the nomadic Parni tribe rebelled and expelled the Seleucid governor. The first ruler of the Parthian state was Arshak I (ruled from 250 to 248/247 BC).

Parthian state of the Arsacids.

The period following Arsaces I's revolt against the Seleucids is called either the Arsacid period or the Parthian period. There were constant wars between the Parthians and the Seleucids, ending in 141 BC, when the Parthians, under Mithridates I, took Seleucia, the Seleucid capital on the Tigris River. On the opposite bank of the river, Mithridates founded a new capital, Ctesiphon, and extended his rule over most of the Iranian plateau. Mithridates II (ruled from 123 to 87/88 BC) further expanded the boundaries of the state and, taking the title “king of kings” (shahinshah), became the ruler of a vast territory from India to Mesopotamia, and in the east to Chinese Turkestan.

The Parthians considered themselves the direct heirs of the Achaemenid state, and their relatively poor culture was supplemented by the influence of Hellenistic culture and traditions introduced earlier by Alexander the Great and the Seleucids. As before in the Seleucid state, the political center moved to the west of the highlands, namely to Ctesiphon, so few monuments testifying to that time have been preserved in good condition in Iran.

During the reign of Phraates III (ruled from 70 to 58/57 BC), Parthia entered a period of almost continuous wars with the Roman Empire, which lasted almost 300 years. The opposing armies fought over a vast area. The Parthians defeated an army under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, after which the border between the two empires lay along the Euphrates. In 115 AD Roman Emperor Trajan took Seleucia. Despite this, the Parthian power held out, and in 161 Vologes III devastated the Roman province of Syria. However, long years of war bled the Parthians, and attempts to defeat the Romans on the western borders weakened their power over the Iranian plateau. Riots broke out in a number of areas. The Fars (or Parsi) satrap Ardashir, the son of a religious leader, declared himself ruler as a direct descendant of the Achaemenids. After defeating several Parthian armies and killing the last Parthian king, Artabanus V, in battle, he took Ctesiphon and inflicted a crushing defeat on the coalition attempting to restore Arsacid power.

Sassanid State.

Ardashir (reigned 224 to 241) founded a new Persian empire known as the Sassanid state (from the Old Persian title "sasan", or "commander"). His son Shapur I (reigned 241 to 272) retained elements of the previous feudal system, but created a highly centralized state. Shapur's armies first moved east and occupied the entire Iranian plateau up to the river. Indus and then turned west against the Romans. At the Battle of Edessa (near modern Urfa, Turkey), Shapur captured the Roman Emperor Valerian along with his 70,000-strong army. The prisoners, who included architects and engineers, were forced to work building roads, bridges and irrigation systems in Iran.

Over the course of several centuries, the Sassanid dynasty changed about 30 rulers; often successors were appointed by the higher clergy and feudal nobility. The dynasty waged continuous wars with Rome. Shapur II, who ascended the throne in 309, fought three wars with Rome during the 70 years of his reign. The greatest of the Sassanids is recognized as Khosrow I (ruled from 531 to 579), who was called the Just or Anushirvan (“Immortal Soul”).

Under the Sassanids, a four-tier system of administrative division was established, a fixed rate of land tax was introduced, and numerous artificial irrigation projects were carried out. In southwest Iran, traces of these irrigation structures still remain. Society was divided into four classes: warriors, priests, scribes and commoners. The latter included peasants, traders and artisans. The first three classes enjoyed special privileges and, in turn, had several gradations. Governors of the provinces were appointed from the highest rank of class, sardars. The capital of the state was Bishapur, the most important cities were Ctesiphon and Gundeshapur (the latter was famous as a center of medical education).

After the fall of Rome, the place of the traditional enemy of the Sassanids was taken by Byzantium. Violating the treaty of perpetual peace, Khosrow I invaded Asia Minor and in 611 captured and burned Antioch. His grandson Khosrow II (reigned 590 to 628), nicknamed Parviz ("Victorious"), briefly restored the Persians to their former Achaemenid glory. In the course of several campaigns, he actually defeated the Byzantine Empire, but the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius made a bold move against the Persian rear. In 627, the army of Khosrow II suffered a crushing defeat at Nineveh in Mesopotamia, Khosrow was deposed and stabbed to death by his own son Kavad II, who died a few months later.

The powerful Sassanid state found itself without a ruler, with a destroyed social structure, exhausted as a result of long wars with Byzantium in the west and with the Central Asian Turks in the east. Over the course of five years, twelve half-ghost rulers were replaced, unsuccessfully trying to restore order. In 632, Yazdegerd III restored central power for several years, but this was not enough. The exhausted empire could not withstand the onslaught of the warriors of Islam, who were uncontrollably rushing north from the Arabian Peninsula. They struck their first crushing blow in 637 at the Battle of Kadispi, as a result of which Ctesiphon fell. The Sassanids suffered their final defeat in 642 at the Battle of Nehavend in the central highlands. Yazdegerd III fled like a hunted animal, his assassination in 651 marking the end of the Sassanid era.

CULTURE

Technology.

Irrigation.

The entire economy of ancient Persia was based on agriculture. Rainfall in the Iranian Plateau is insufficient to support extensive agriculture, so the Persians had to rely on irrigation. The few and shallow rivers of the highlands did not provide the irrigation ditches with enough water, and in the summer they dried up. Therefore, the Persians developed a unique system of underground canals. At the foot of the mountain ranges, deep wells were dug, passing through hard but porous layers of gravel to the underlying impervious clays that form the lower boundary of the aquifer. The wells collected meltwater from mountain peaks, which were covered with a thick layer of snow in winter. From these wells, underground water conduits as tall as a man broke through, with vertical shafts located at regular intervals, through which light and air were supplied to the workers. Water conduits reached the surface and served as sources of water all year round.

Artificial irrigation with the help of dams and canals, which originated and was widely used on the plains of Mesopotamia, spread to the territory of Elam, similar in natural conditions, through which several rivers flow. This region, now known as Khuzistan, is densely cut by hundreds of ancient canals. Irrigation systems reached their greatest development during the Sasanian period. Today, numerous remains of dams, bridges and aqueducts built under the Sassanids are still preserved. Since they were designed by captured Roman engineers, they closely resemble similar structures found throughout the Roman Empire.

Transport.

The rivers of Iran are not navigable, but in other parts of the Achaemenid Empire water transport was well developed. So, in 520 BC. Darius I the Great reconstructed the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea. During the Achaemenid period, there was extensive construction of land roads, but paved roads were constructed mainly in swampy and mountainous areas. Significant sections of narrow, stone-paved roads built under the Sassanids are found in the west and south of Iran. The choice of location for the construction of roads was unusual for that time. They were laid not along valleys, along river banks, but along mountain ridges. Roads descended into valleys only to make it possible to cross to the other side in strategically important places, for which massive bridges were built.

Along the roads, at a distance of a day's travel from one another, post stations were built where horses were changed. There was a very efficient postal service, with postal couriers covering up to 145 km per day. The center of horse breeding since time immemorial has been the fertile region in the Zagros Mountains, located adjacent to the Trans-Asian trade route. Iranians began using camels as beasts of burden from ancient times; This “type of transport” came to Mesopotamia from Media ca. 1100 BC

Economy.

The basis of the economy of Ancient Persia was agricultural production. Trade also flourished. All the numerous capitals of the ancient Iranian kingdoms were located along the most important trade route between the Mediterranean and the Far East or on its branch towards the Persian Gulf. In all periods, the Iranians played the role of an intermediate link - they guarded this route and kept part of the goods transported along it. During excavations in Susa and Persepolis, beautiful items from Egypt were found. The reliefs of Persepolis depict representatives of all satrapies of the Achaemenid state presenting gifts to the great rulers. Since Achaemenid times, Iran has exported marble, alabaster, lead, turquoise, lapis lazuli (lapis lazuli) and carpets. The Achaemenids created fabulous reserves of gold coins minted in various satrapies. In contrast, Alexander the Great introduced a single silver coin for the entire empire. The Parthians returned to a gold currency, and during the Sasanian times silver and copper coins predominated in circulation.

The system of large feudal estates that developed under the Achaemenids survived into the Seleucid period, but the kings of this dynasty significantly eased the situation of the peasants. Then, during the Parthian period, the huge feudal estates were restored, and this system did not change under the Sassanids. All states sought to obtain maximum income and established taxes on peasant farms, livestock, land, introduced per capita taxes, and collected fees for travel on roads. All these taxes and fees were levied either in imperial coin or in kind. By the end of the Sasanian period, the number and magnitude of taxes had become an intolerable burden for the population, and this tax pressure played a decisive role in the collapse of the social structure of the state.

Political and social organization.

All Persian rulers were absolute monarchs who ruled their subjects according to the will of the gods. But this power was absolute only in theory; in fact, it was limited by the influence of hereditary large feudal lords. The rulers tried to achieve stability through marriages with relatives, as well as by taking as wives the daughters of potential or actual enemies - both domestic and foreign. Nevertheless, the reign of the monarchs and the continuity of their power were threatened not only by external enemies, but also by members of their own families.

The Median period was distinguished by a very primitive political organization, which is very typical for peoples transitioning to a sedentary lifestyle. Already among the Achaemenids the concept of a unitary state appeared. In the Achaemenid state, satraps were fully responsible for the state of affairs in their provinces, but could be subject to unexpected inspection by inspectors, who were called the eyes and ears of the king. The royal court constantly emphasized the importance of administering justice and therefore continuously moved from one satrapy to another.

Alexander the Great married the daughter of Darius III, retained satrapies and the custom of prostrating himself before the king. The Seleucids adopted from Alexander the idea of ​​merging races and cultures in the vast expanses from the Mediterranean Sea to the river. Ind. During this period, rapid urban development occurred, accompanied by the Hellenization of the Iranians and the Iranianization of the Greeks. However, there were no Iranians among the rulers, and they were always considered outsiders. Iranian traditions were preserved in the Persepolis area, where temples were built in the style of the Achaemenid era.

The Parthians tried to unite the ancient satrapies. They also played an important role in the fight against nomads from Central Asia advancing from east to west. As before, the satrapies were headed by hereditary governors, but a new factor was the lack of natural continuity of royal power. The legitimacy of the Parthian monarchy was no longer indisputable. The successor was chosen by a council composed of nobles, which inevitably led to endless fighting between rival factions.

The Sasanian kings made a serious attempt to revive the spirit and original structure of the Achaemenid state, partly reproducing its rigid social organization. In descending order were vassal princes, hereditary aristocrats, nobles and knights, priests, peasants, and slaves. The state administrative apparatus was led by the first minister, to whom several ministries were subordinate, including military, justice and finance, each of which had its own staff of skilled officials. The king himself was the supreme judge, and justice was administered by the priests.

Religion.

In ancient times, the cult of the great mother goddess, a symbol of childbirth and fertility, was widespread. In Elam she was called Kirisisha, and throughout the Parthian period her images were cast on Luristan bronzes and figurines made of terracotta, bone, ivory and metals.

The inhabitants of the Iranian plateau also worshiped many Mesopotamian deities. After the first wave of Aryans passed through Iran, Indo-Iranian deities such as Mithra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya appeared here. In all beliefs, a pair of deities was certainly present - the goddess, personifying the Sun and Earth, and her husband, personifying the Moon and natural elements. Local gods bore the names of the tribes and peoples who worshiped them. Elam had its own deities, most notably the goddess Shala and her husband Inshushinak.

The Achaemenid period marked a decisive turn from polytheism to a more universal system reflecting the eternal struggle between good and evil. The earliest inscription from this period, a metal tablet made before 590 BC, contains the name of the god Agura Mazda (Ahuramazda). Indirectly, the inscription may be a reflection of the reform of Mazdaism (the cult of Agura Mazda), carried out by the prophet Zarathushtra, or Zoroaster, as narrated in the Gathas, ancient sacred hymns.

The identity of Zarathushtra continues to be shrouded in mystery. Apparently he was born ca. 660 BC, but perhaps much earlier, and perhaps much later. The god Ahuramazda personified the good principle, truth and light, apparently, in contrast to Ahriman (Angra Mainyu), the personification of the evil principle, although the very concept of Angra Mainyu could have appeared later. Darius's inscriptions mention Ahuramazda, and the relief on his tomb depicts the worship of this deity at a sacrificial fire. The chronicles give reason to believe that Darius and Xerxes believed in immortality. Worship of the sacred fire took place both inside temples and in open places. The Magi, originally members of one of the Median clans, became hereditary priests. They supervised the temples and took care of strengthening the faith by performing certain rituals. An ethical doctrine based on good thoughts, good words and good deeds was revered. Throughout the Achaemenid period, rulers were very tolerant of local deities, and starting with the reign of Artaxerxes II, the ancient Iranian sun god Mithra and the fertility goddess Anahita received official recognition.

The Parthians, in search of their own official religion, turned to the Iranian past and settled on Mazdaism. Traditions were codified, and magicians regained their former power. The cult of Anahita continued to enjoy official recognition, as well as popularity among the people, and the cult of Mithra crossed the western borders of the kingdom and spread throughout most of the Roman Empire. In the west of the Parthian kingdom, Christianity, which became widespread there, was tolerated. At the same time, in the eastern regions of the empire, Greek, Indian and Iranian deities united in a single Greco-Bactrian pantheon.

Under the Sassanids, continuity was maintained, but there were also some important changes in religious traditions. Mazdaism survived most of Zarathushtra's early reforms and became associated with the cult of Anahita. To compete on equal terms with Christianity and Judaism, the holy book of the Zoroastrians was created Avesta, a collection of ancient poems and hymns. The Magi still stood at the head of the priests and were the guardians of the three great national fires, as well as the holy fires in all important settlements. Christians by that time had long been persecuted, they were considered enemies of the state, since they were identified with Rome and Byzantium, but by the end of the Sassanid reign, the attitude towards them became more tolerant and Nestorian communities flourished in the country.

Other religions also emerged during the Sasanian period. In the middle of the 3rd century. preached by the prophet Mani, who developed the idea of ​​​​unifying Mazdaism, Buddhism and Christianity and especially emphasized the need to liberate the spirit from the body. Manichaeism demanded celibacy from priests and virtue from believers. Followers of Manichaeism were required to fast and offer prayers, but not to worship images or perform sacrifices. Shapur I favored Manichaeism and may have intended to make it the state religion, but this was sharply opposed by the still powerful priests of Mazdaism and in 276 Mani was executed. Nevertheless, Manichaeism persisted for several centuries in Central Asia, Syria and Egypt.

At the end of the 5th century. preached by another religious reformer, a native of Iran, Mazdak. His ethical doctrine combined both elements of Mazdaism and practical ideas about non-violence, vegetarianism and communal life. Kavad I initially supported the Mazdakian sect, but this time the official priesthood turned out to be stronger and in 528 the prophet and his followers were executed. The advent of Islam put an end to the national religious traditions of Persia, but a group of Zoroastrians fled to India. Their descendants, the Parsis, still practice the religion of Zoroaster.

Architecture and art.

Early metal products.

In addition to the colossal number of ceramic objects, products made from such durable materials as bronze, silver and gold are of exceptional importance for the study of Ancient Iran. A huge number of so-called Luristan bronzes were discovered in Luristan, in the Zagros Mountains, during illegal excavations of the graves of semi-nomadic tribes. These unique examples included weapons, horse harnesses, jewelry, as well as objects depicting scenes from religious life or ritual purposes. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus as to who and when they were made. In particular, it was suggested that they were created in the 15th century. BC. to 7th century BC, most likely by the Kassites or Scythian-Cimmerian tribes. Bronze items continue to be found in the Azerbaijan province in northwestern Iran. They differ significantly in style from the Luristan bronzes, although they both appear to belong to the same period. Bronzes from Northwestern Iran are similar to recent finds from the same region; for example, the finds of an accidentally discovered treasure in Ziviya and a wonderful golden cup found during excavations in Hasanlu Tepe are similar to each other. These items date back to the 9th–7th centuries. BC, Assyrian and Scythian influence is visible in their stylized ornaments and depictions of deities.

Achaemenid period.

Architectural monuments of the pre-Achaemenid period have not survived, although reliefs in Assyrian palaces depict cities on the Iranian plateau. It is very likely that for a long time, even under the Achaemenids, the population of the highlands led a semi-nomadic lifestyle and wooden buildings were typical for the region. Indeed, the monumental structures of Cyrus at Pasargadae, including his own tomb, which resembles a wooden house with a gabled roof, as well as Darius and his successors at Persepolis and their tombs at nearby Naqshi Rustem, are stone copies of wooden prototypes. In Pasargadae, royal palaces with columned halls and porticos were scattered throughout a shady park. In Persepolis under Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes III, reception halls and royal palaces were built on terraces raised above the surrounding area. In this case, it was not arches that were characteristic, but columns typical of this period, covered with horizontal beams. Labor, construction and finishing materials, as well as decorations were brought from all over the country, while the style of architectural details and carved reliefs was a mixture of artistic styles then prevailing in Egypt, Assyria and Asia Minor. During excavations in Susa, parts of the palace complex were found, the construction of which began under Darius. The plan of the building and its decorative decoration reveal a much greater Assyro-Babylonian influence than the palaces at Persepolis.

Achaemenid art was also characterized by a mixture of styles and eclecticism. It is represented by stone carvings, bronze figurines, figurines made of precious metals and jewelry. The best jewelry was discovered in a chance find made many years ago known as the Amu Darya treasure. The bas-reliefs of Persepolis are world famous. Some of them depict kings during ceremonial receptions or defeating mythical beasts, and along the stairs in the large reception hall of Darius and Xerxes the royal guard lined up and a long procession of peoples is visible, bringing tribute to the ruler.

Parthian period.

Most architectural monuments of the Parthian period are found west of the Iranian plateau and have few Iranian features. True, during this period an element appeared that would be widely used in all subsequent Iranian architecture. This is the so-called ivan, a rectangular vaulted hall, open from the entrance. Parthian art was even more eclectic than the art of the Achaemenid period. In different parts of the state, products of different styles were made: in some Hellenistic, in others Buddhist, in others Greco-Bactrian. Plaster friezes, stone carvings and wall paintings were used for decoration. Glazed pottery, the forerunner of ceramics, was popular during this period.

Sasanian period.

Many structures from the Sasanian period are in relatively good condition. Most of them were made of stone, although baked brick was also used. Among the surviving buildings are royal palaces, fire temples, dams and bridges, as well as entire city blocks. The place of columns with horizontal ceilings was taken by arches and vaults; square rooms were crowned with domes, arched openings were widely used, and many buildings had ivans. The domes were supported by four trumpos, cone-shaped vaulted structures that spanned the corners of the square rooms. Ruins of palaces remain at Firuzabad and Servestan, in southwestern Iran, and at Qasr Shirin, on the western edge of the plateau. The largest palace was considered to be in Ctesiphon, on the river. The tiger known as Taki-Kisra. In its center there was a giant ivan with a vault 27 meters high and a distance between supports equal to 23 m. More than 20 fire temples have survived, the main elements of which were square rooms topped with domes and sometimes surrounded by vaulted corridors. As a rule, such temples were erected on high rocks so that the open sacred fire could be seen from a great distance. The walls of the buildings were covered with plaster, onto which a pattern made using the notching technique was applied. Numerous rock-cut reliefs are found along the banks of reservoirs fed by spring waters. They depict kings facing Agura Mazda or defeating their enemies.

The pinnacle of Sassanian art are textiles, silver dishes and cups, most of which were made for the royal court. Scenes of royal hunting, figures of kings in ceremonial attire, and geometric and floral patterns are woven onto thin brocade. On the silver bowls there are images of kings on the throne, battle scenes, dancers, fighting animals and sacred birds made using the technique of extrusion or appliqué. The fabrics, unlike the silver dishes, are made in styles that came from the West. In addition, elegant bronze incense burners and wide-necked jugs were found, as well as clay products with bas-reliefs covered with shiny glaze. The mixture of styles still does not allow us to accurately date the found objects and determine the place of manufacture of most of them.

Writing and science.

The oldest written language of Iran is represented by as yet undeciphered inscriptions in the Proto-Elamite language, which was spoken in Susa ca. 3000 BC The much more advanced written languages ​​of Mesopotamia quickly spread to Iran, and in Susa and the Iranian plateau the population used the Akkadian language for many centuries.

The Aryans who came to the Iranian plateau brought with them Indo-European languages, different from the Semitic languages ​​of Mesopotamia. During the Achaemenid period, royal inscriptions carved on rocks were parallel columns in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian. Throughout the Achaemenid period, royal documents and private correspondence were written either in cuneiform on clay tablets or in writing on parchment. At the same time, at least three languages ​​were in use - Old Persian, Aramaic and Elamite.

Alexander the Great introduced the Greek language, his teachers taught about 30,000 young Persians from noble families the Greek language and military science. On his great campaigns, Alexander was accompanied by a large retinue of geographers, historians and scribes, who recorded everything that happened day after day and became acquainted with the culture of all the peoples they met along the way. Particular attention was paid to navigation and the establishment of sea communications. The Greek language continued to be used under the Seleucids, while the Old Persian language was preserved in the Persepolis region. Greek served as the language of trade throughout the Parthian period, but the main language of the Iranian Highlands became Middle Persian, which represented a qualitatively new stage in the development of Old Persian. Over many centuries, the Aramaic script used to write in the Old Persian language was transformed into the Pahlavi script with an undeveloped and inconvenient alphabet.

During the Sasanian period, Middle Persian became the official and main language of the inhabitants of the highlands. Its writing was based on a variant of the Pahlavi script known as the Pahlavi-Sassanian script. The sacred books of the Avesta were written in a special way - first in Zenda, and then in the Avesta language.

In ancient Iran, science did not rise to the heights that it reached in neighboring Mesopotamia. The spirit of scientific and philosophical search awakened only in the Sasanian period. The most important works were translated from Greek, Latin and other languages. That's when they were born Book of Great Feats, Book of ranks, Iran countries And Book of Kings. Other works from this period survive only in later Arabic translations.

The Persian power had a huge impact on the history of the Ancient World. The Achaemenid state, formed by a small tribal union, existed for about two hundred years. Mention of the splendor and power of the Persian country is in many ancient sources, including the Bible.

Start

The first mention of the Persians is found in Assyrian sources. In an inscription dated to the 9th century BC. e., contains the name of the land Parsua. Geographically, this area was located in the Central Zagros region, and during the mentioned period the population of this area paid tribute to the Assyrians. The unification of tribes did not yet exist. The Assyrians mention 27 kingdoms under their control. In the 7th century the Persians apparently entered into a tribal union, since references to kings from the Achaemenid tribe appeared in the sources. The history of the Persian state begins in 646 BC, when Cyrus I became the ruler of the Persians.

During the reign of Cyrus I, the Persians significantly expanded the territories under their control, including taking possession of most of the Iranian plateau. At the same time, the first capital of the Persian state, the city of Pasargadae, was founded. Some Persians were engaged in agriculture, some led

The emergence of the Persian Empire

At the end of the 6th century. BC e. The Persian people were ruled by Cambyses I, who was dependent on the kings of Media. Cambyses' son, Cyrus II, became ruler of the settled Persians. Information about the ancient Persian people is scanty and fragmentary. Apparently, the main unit of society was the patriarchal family, headed by a man who had the right to dispose of the lives and property of his loved ones. The community, first tribal and later rural, was a powerful force for several centuries. Several communities formed a tribe, several tribes could already be called a people.

The emergence of the Persian state occurred at a time when the entire Middle East was divided between four states: Egypt, Media, Lydia, Babylonia.

Even in its heyday, Media was actually a fragile tribal union. Thanks to the victories of King Cyaxares, Media conquered the state of Urartu and the ancient country of Elam. The descendants of Cyaxares were unable to retain the conquests of their great ancestor. The constant war with Babylon required the presence of troops on the border. This weakened the internal politics of Media, which the vassals of the Median king took advantage of.

Reign of Cyrus II

In 553, Cyrus II rebelled against the Medes, to whom the Persians had been paying tribute for several centuries. The war lasted three years and ended with a crushing defeat for the Medes. The capital of Media (Ektabani) became one of the residences of the Persian ruler. Having conquered the ancient country, Cyrus II formally preserved the Median kingdom and assumed the titles of the Median rulers. Thus began the formation of the Persian state.

After the capture of Media, Persia declared itself as a new state in world history, and for two centuries played an important role in the events taking place in the Middle East. In 549-548. the newly formed state conquered Elam and subjugated a number of countries that were part of the former Median state. Parthia, Armenia, Hyrcania began to pay tribute to the new Persian rulers.

War with Lydia

Croesus, the ruler of powerful Lydia, realized what a dangerous enemy the Persian power was. A number of alliances were concluded with Egypt and Sparta. However, the Allies did not have the chance to begin full-scale military operations. Croesus did not want to wait for help and acted alone against the Persians. In the decisive battle near the capital of Lydia - the city of Sardis, Croesus brought his cavalry, which was considered invincible, onto the battlefield. Cyrus II sent soldiers riding camels. The horses, seeing unknown animals, refused to obey the riders; the Lydian horsemen were forced to fight on foot. The unequal battle ended with the retreat of the Lydians, after which the city of Sardis was besieged by the Persians. Of the former allies, only the Spartans decided to come to the aid of Croesus. But while the campaign was being prepared, the city of Sardis fell, and the Persians subjugated Lydia.

Expanding boundaries

Then it was the turn of the Greek city-states, which were located in the territory. After a series of major victories and suppression of rebellions, the Persians subjugated the city-states, thereby acquiring the opportunity to use them in battles.

At the end of the 6th century, the Persian power expanded its borders to the northwestern regions of India, to the cordons of the Hindu Kush and subjugated the tribes living in the river basin. Syrdarya. Only after strengthening the borders, suppressing rebellions and establishing royal power did Cyrus II turn his attention to powerful Babylonia. On October 20, 539, the city fell, and Cyrus II became the official ruler of Babylon, and at the same time the ruler of one of the largest powers of the Ancient World - the Persian Kingdom.

Reign of Cambyses

Cyrus died in battle with the Massagetae in 530 BC. e. His policy was successfully carried out by his son Cambyses. After thorough preliminary diplomatic preparation, Egypt, another enemy of Persia, found itself completely alone and could not count on the support of its allies. Cambyses carried out his father's plan and conquered Egypt in 522 BC. e. Meanwhile, discontent was brewing in Persia itself and a rebellion broke out. Cambyses hurried to his homeland and died on the road under mysterious circumstances. After some time, the ancient Persian power provided the opportunity to gain power to the representative of the younger branch of the Achaemenids - Darius Hystaspes.

Beginning of the reign of Darius

The seizure of power by Darius I caused discontent and grumbling in enslaved Babylonia. The leader of the rebels declared himself the son of the last Babylonian ruler and began to be called Nebuchadnezzar III. In December 522 BC. e. Darius I won. The rebel leaders were publicly executed.

Punitive actions distracted Darius, and in the meantime rebellions arose in Media, Elam, Parthia and other areas. It took the new ruler more than a year to pacify the country and restore the state of Cyrus II and Cambyses to its former borders.

Between 518 and 512, the Persian Empire conquered Macedonia, Thrace and part of India. This time is considered the heyday of the ancient kingdom of the Persians. A state of global importance united dozens of countries and hundreds of tribes and peoples under its rule.

Social structure of Ancient Persia. Darius' reforms

The Achaemenid Persian state was distinguished by a wide variety of social structures and customs. Babylonia, Syria, Egypt, long before Persia, were considered highly developed states, and the recently conquered tribes of nomads of Scythian and Arab origin were still at the stage of a primitive way of life.

Chain of uprisings 522-520. showed the ineffectiveness of the previous government scheme. Therefore, Darius I carried out a number of administrative reforms and created a stable system of state control over the conquered peoples. The result of the reforms was the first effective administrative system in history, which served the Achaemenid rulers for more than one generation.

An effective administrative apparatus is a clear example of how Darius ruled the Persian state. The country was divided into administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. The size of the satrapies was much larger than the territories of early states, and in some cases coincided with the ethnographic boundaries of ancient peoples. For example, the satrapy of Egypt territorially almost completely coincided with the borders of this state before its conquest by the Persians. The districts were led by government officials - satraps. Unlike his predecessors, who looked for their governors among the nobility of the conquered peoples, Darius I appointed exclusively nobles of Persian origin to these positions.

Functions of governors

Previously, the governor combined both administrative and civil functions. The satrap of the time of Darius had only civil powers; the military authorities were not subordinate to him. Satraps had the right to mint coins, were in charge of the country's economic activities, collected taxes, and administered justice. In peacetime, satraps were provided with a small personal guard. The army was subordinate exclusively to military leaders independent of the satraps.

The implementation of government reforms led to the creation of a large central administrative apparatus headed by the royal office. State administration was carried out by the capital of the Persian state - the city of Susa. The large cities of that time, Babylon, Ektabana, and Memphis also had their own offices.

Satraps and officials were under the constant control of the secret police. In ancient sources it was called “the ears and eye of the king.” Control and supervision of officials was entrusted to the Khazarapat - the commander of a thousand. State correspondence was conducted on which almost all the peoples of Persia owned.

Culture of the Persian Empire

Ancient Persia left its descendants a great architectural heritage. The magnificent palace complexes at Susa, Persepolis and Pasargadae made a stunning impression on their contemporaries. The royal estates were surrounded by gardens and parks. One of the monuments that has survived to this day is the tomb of Cyrus II. Many similar monuments that arose hundreds of years later took as their basis the architecture of the tomb of the Persian king. The culture of the Persian state contributed to the glorification of the king and the strengthening of royal power among the conquered peoples.

The art of ancient Persia combined the artistic traditions of Iranian tribes, intertwined with elements of Greek, Egyptian, and Assyrian cultures. Among the objects that have come down to descendants there are many decorations, bowls and vases, various cups, decorated with sophisticated paintings. A special place in the finds is occupied by numerous seals with images of kings and heroes, as well as various animals and fantastic creatures.

Economic development of Persia during the time of Darius

The nobility occupied a special position in the Persian kingdom. The nobles owned large land holdings in all conquered territories. Huge areas were placed at the disposal of the tsar’s “benefactors” for personal services to him. The owners of such lands had the right to manage, transfer the plots as an inheritance to their descendants, and they were also entrusted with the exercise of judicial power over their subjects. A land tenure system was widely used, in which plots were called allotments of a horse, bow, chariot, etc. The king distributed such lands to his soldiers, for which their owners had to serve in the active army as horsemen, archers, and charioteers.

But as before, huge tracts of land were in the direct possession of the king himself. They were usually rented out. The products of agriculture and livestock breeding were accepted as payment for them.

In addition to the lands, canals were under direct royal authority. The managers of the royal property rented them out and collected taxes for the use of water. For irrigation of fertile soils, a fee was charged, reaching 1/3 of the landowner's harvest.

Persian labor resources

Slave labor was used in all sectors of the economy. The bulk of them were usually prisoners of war. Bail slavery, when people sold themselves, did not become widespread. Slaves had a number of privileges, such as the right to have their own seals and participate in various transactions as full partners. A slave could redeem himself by paying a certain rent, and also be a plaintiff, witness or defendant in legal proceedings, of course, not against his masters. The practice of hiring hired workers for a certain amount of money was widespread. The work of such workers became especially widespread in Babylonia, where they dug canals, built roads, and harvested crops from royal or temple fields.

Darius' financial policy

The main source of funds for the treasury was taxes. In 519, the king approved the basic system of state taxes. Taxes were calculated for each satrapy, taking into account its territory and land fertility. The Persians, as a conquering people, did not pay tax, but were not exempt from the tax in kind.

Various monetary units that continued to exist even after the unification of the country brought a lot of inconvenience, so in 517 BC. e. The king introduced a new gold coin, called the darik. The medium of exchange was a silver shekel, which was worth 1/20 of a darik and served in those days. The reverse of both coins featured the image of Darius I.

Transport routes of the Persian state

The spread of the road network facilitated the development of trade between the various satrapies. The royal road of the Persian state began in Lydia, crossed Asia Minor and passed through Babylon, and from there to Susa and Persepolis. The sea routes laid by the Greeks were successfully used by the Persians in trade and for the transfer of military force.

The sea expeditions of the ancient Persians are also known, for example, the journey of the sailor Skilak to the Indian shores in 518 BC. e.