Ancient India. History of India. Brief abstracts

Archaeological evidence allows us to attribute the most ancient period of Indian history to the 7th millennium BC. e., when the first communities of Neolithic farmers and pastoralists appeared in the valleys of the Indus and Saraswati rivers.

In the 3rd millennium BC. e. Dravidian aborigines created their first civilization, which in our time is called Harappan(Indus), according to the largest settlement excavated at the beginning of the twentieth century. in what is now Pakistani Punjab. Despite the highest level of development of material culture for that time (monumental construction, metallurgy, international trade), by the 18th-17th centuries BC. e. The Harappan civilization fell into obvious decline. The main cities (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal) were abandoned, and the population moved en masse to the south and east of the subcontinent.

India photo - Mohenjo-Daro (reconstruction)	India photo - Harappan writing

Vedic period of Indian history

The fall of the Harappan civilization accelerated the invasion of the region by the nomadic Aryan tribes, who were lower in terms of material culture, but were very warlike and easily conquered Northern India. WITH Aryan invasion In the history of India, the Vedic period began, named after the system of sacred hymns - the Vedas, which formed the basis of the spiritual culture of the invaders and laid the foundation of modern Hinduism. The language of the Aryans (related to the language of the Iranians and ancient Slavs) eventually gave birth to Sanskrit - the language of classical Indian culture, from which the modern state language of India - Hindi - emerged.

By the 6th century BC. e. Aryan nomads finally switched to a sedentary lifestyle, forming 16 small kingdoms in the conquered territories - the Mahajanapadas, the most powerful of which was Magadha. During the same period, with a difference of 36 years, Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) and Vardhamana (Mahavir) were born, who became the founders of the 2 largest religious teachings of the East - Buddhism and Jainism. By the end of the 6th century. BC e. part of the lands in North-West India became part of the empire of the Iranian kings from the Achaemenid Empire.

Ancient time

In 327-325 BC. e. Alexander the Great made a campaign of conquest in North-West India and annexed part of the territories to his growing empire. In the wake of the fight against the Greek invaders in 317 BC. Chandragupta of the Mauryan clan led a liberation uprising of the Punjab tribes and expelled the remnants of the Greco-Macedonian troops from their Indian satrapies.

In 321 BC Chandragupta founded the first Maurya Empire, which included the lands of the Indus and Ganges valleys, and later the captured territories of the states of Cambodia, Gandhara and part of the lands in Eastern Iran. Under Emperor Ashoka, who captured in 268 BC. e. power and the heirs of Chandragupta, the Mauryan state reached the pinnacle of its power, becoming one of the largest in Asia. Ashoka pursued a unique policy of religious tolerance. The Buddhist community enjoyed his special patronage, which caused discontent among his inner circle and his removal from power.

Ashoka's successors failed to keep the empire from collapse, and in 180 BC. e. the last of the Mauryas was overthrown by his warlord, who founded a new Shung dynasty.

India photo - Kushan wars (reconstruction)	India photo - art of the Guptas

In the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. the period of invasion of Northern India by troops from Greco-Bactrian Kingdom(the territory of modern Afghanistan), which previously broke away from the Hellenistic Seleucid state. After the campaign of 180 BC. e. The ruler of the Greco-Bactrians, Demetrius, was able to wrest a significant part of the territories from the weakening hands of the Shungs and establish the Indo-Greek kingdom there. Buddhism became the official religion of the Indo-Greek kingdom. In the 1st century BC. e. As a result of the invasion of Northern India by various nomadic tribes, the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms arose there in turn.

Starting from the 2nd century. BC e., in Bactria, neighboring India, the Kushan tribes came to power, whose rulers began the gradual conquest of Indian lands. In 68 AD. King Kujula Kadphises founds Kushan Empire, which soon captures significant territories in Northern and Eastern India. The Kushan Empire reached the zenith of its power under King Kanishka, who expanded its borders to the lands of Central India. Under Kanishka, the Kushan state stood on a par with the largest empires of the ancient world - Roman, Chinese and Parthian. In the 3rd century, the Kushan Empire collapsed under the influence of internal contradictions and the external onslaught of the troops of the Persian kingdom of the Sassanids.

The last great power in the ancient history of India was Gupta Empire, founded by King Sri Gupta in 240 AD. Under King Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, who began to rule in 320 AD. e., the Gupta state reaches its greatest power. This time, called the “golden age of the Guptas,” became a period of unprecedented flowering of Indian culture and science. In the 4th century, the Gupta Empire was crushed by the invasion of nomads from the Ephtalnt Huns tribe, who created several small principalities on its ruins.

Middle Ages in India

Medieval history of india began with an invasion in the middle of the 8th century. AD Muslim conquerors of Turkic origin from Central Asia. On the captured lands of Northern and Central India, Muslims founded the powerful Delhi Sultanate, which existed from the 10th to the 12th centuries AD.

India photo - Babur leads the army into battle

A new powerful wave of conquerors poured into the lands of India also from Central Asia. A descendant of the legendary Mongol commander Tamerlane, Babur first occupied Kabul, and from there in 1518-1524 he made a number of successful raids on India. In 1526, Babur completely defeated the troops of the Delhi Sultanate, and a year later he defeated the united army of the Rajputs, creating on the conquered lands a state that later went down in history under the name Mughal Empire. Babur's conquests were continued by his great successors - Akbar and Jahan, who expanded and strengthened the power of the Great Mughals over much of India.

Colonial period of Indian history

Starting from the 16th century, trade representatives from Portugal, the Netherlands, France and Great Britain began to actively operate in India, interested in establishing control over trade with Europe. This rivalry is ultimately won by the British Empire, which created the powerful East India Company in 1600. The company firmly established itself in Bengal and soon ousted its competitors from India.

From the middle of the 18th century. processes of disintegration begin in the Mughal Empire. The heirs of the Great Mughals wage devastating internecine wars, and the governors of the provinces begin to separate large areas from a single state. These circumstances were added to by military aggression from neighboring Persia and the South Indian state of the Marathas.

The British skillfully took advantage of the internal contradictions of the Indian states. By 1856, they had deposed the last Great Mughal, Bahadur Shah, and established virtually full control British East India Company over Hindustan.

India photo - execution of rebel sepoys	India photo - Mohatma Gandhi

In 1857-59. swept across the country sepoy mutiny(mercenary soldiers recruited from Indians) - the first attempt at a people's liberation war of the people of India against the British colonialists. The uprising was brutally suppressed, but served as the reason for the liquidation of the East India Company and the introduction of direct royal rule in India.

First half of the twentieth century. became the time of the beginning of the national liberation movement in India. Party activities Indian National Congress And Mahatma Gandhi led to India being able to gain independence from Britain non-violently on August 15, 1947. When leaving, the insidious British divided the “pearl of the British Empire” into 2 states - India and Pakistan, populated mainly by Hindus and Muslims. This immediately led to bloody clashes on religious and ethnic grounds, which continued throughout the rest of the twentieth century.

Modern period of Indian history

Modern history of india began on January 26, 1950 with the adoption of a new constitution and the establishment of republican government. Having become independent, India set a course for the establishment of a democratic state and economic reforms.

India's history as an independent state was marred by four Pakistan-India wars (1947-49, 1965, 1971, 1999), during which most of disputed Kashmir remained with India, and the independent state of Bangladesh separated from Pakistan. In 1962, there was an armed border conflict between India and China over the disputed territories between Tibet and Kashmir. In 1974, India carried out its first nuclear weapons test, joining the strongest powers on the planet.

India photo - peace treaty in the war with Pakistan	India photo - Independence Day parade

History of India in the 21st century. characterized by rapid economic growth, which resulted from the successful reforms of 1991-1996. Today, India is part of the group of so-called countries BRICS(which also includes Brazil, Russia, China and South Africa), where its specialization is intellectual resources. Although problems such as uncontrolled population growth, environmental pollution, inter-religious strife and the threat of terrorism are hampering the country's development, India is steadily striving to take its rightful place among the world's leading powers.

Around 1500 BC e. The Indus Valley (the territory of modern Pakistan) began to be populated by Aryan tribes. Gradually they settled throughout Northern India and founded their cities there.

Mauryan architecture

During the reign of Ashoka, many Buddhist monasteries were founded and monuments were erected. Huge stone domes, called stupas, were built in places associated with the life of Buddha. One of these stupas was built in the city of Sanchi. There was a stone fence around it, and carvings on the gate depicted scenes from the life of Buddha.

After the death of Ashoka, the power of his power weakened, and soon it broke up into separate kingdoms. The fragmentation of India continued until 320 AD. e., when the new royal family of the Guptas subjugated it.

Ancient Indian civilization is one of the most ancient and original civilizations of the East. The history of this country dates back thousands of years.

Historical data reports that India was inhabited in ancient times in the Indus River valley. The ancient people who laid the foundation for a great civilization were called Indians. From an early time, science and culture developed in India, and writing arose. The ancient Indians achieved a high level of agriculture, which led to the rapid development of society. They grew sugar cane, wove the finest fabrics, and engaged in trade.

The beliefs of the Indians were as diverse as their culture. They revered various gods and the Vedas, deified animals and worshiped brahmans - keepers of sacred knowledge, who were equated with living deities.

Due to its many achievements, India was of great historical importance even in ancient times.

Geographical location and nature

India is located in southern Asia. In ancient times, it occupied a vast territory, bordered in the north by the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world. India is divided into southern and northern parts, which differ greatly in their development. This division is due to the natural conditions of these areas, separated by a mountain range.

Southern India occupies the fertile lands of the peninsula, rich in flat landscapes and rivers. The central territory of the peninsula is characterized by an arid climate, as the mountains hold back moist winds from the oceanic expanses.

Northern India is located on the mainland and includes deserts and semi-desert lands. In the west of Northern India flows the Indus River and large rivers flowing into it. This made it possible to develop agriculture here and irrigate arid areas using canals.

In the east flows the Ganges River and many of its tributaries. The climate of this area is humid. Due to the high rainfall in these areas, it was convenient to grow rice and cane. In ancient times, these places were dense forests inhabited by wild animals, which created many difficulties for the first farmers.

The geographical conditions of India are completely different - snow-capped mountains and green plains, impenetrable humid jungles and hot deserts. The animal and plant worlds are also very diverse and contain many unique species. It was these features of climate and territorial location that significantly influenced the further development of Ancient India in some areas, and the almost complete slowdown of progress in other, hard-to-reach areas.

The emergence of the state

Scientists know little about the existence and structure of the ancient Indian state, since written sources from that period have never been deciphered. Only the location of the centers of ancient civilization - the large cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa - has been accurately established. These could have been the capitals of the first ancient state formations. Archaeologists have found sculptures, remains of buildings and religious buildings, which gives an idea of ​​the high level of development of society of that time.

In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Aryan tribes came to the territory of Ancient India. Indian civilization began to disappear under the onslaught of invading conquerors. Writing was lost, and the established social system collapsed.

The Aryans extended their social division to the Indians and applied the class system - varnas. The highest position was occupied by brahmins or priests. The kshatriya class consisted of noble warriors, and the vaishyas were peasants and traders. The Shudras occupied a fairly low position. The name of this varna meant “servant” - this included all non-Aryans. The most difficult work went to those who were not part of any class.

Later, a division into castes began to form depending on the type of activity. Caste was determined at birth and determined the norms of behavior of each member of society.

In the 1st millennium BC. e. rulers - kings or rajas - arise on the territory of India. The first strong powers are being formed, which has a positive impact on the development of the economy, trade relations, statehood and culture. Already by the end of the 4th century. BC e. a strong empire was formed, which began to attract not only traders, but also armies of conquerors led by Alexander the Great. Macedonian failed to capture Indian lands, but the long-term contact of different cultures favorably influenced the course of their development.

India becomes one of the largest and most powerful states of the East, and the culture that was formed at that time, having undergone some modifications, has reached our time.

Economic life and activities of Indians

Having settled on fertile lands near the Indus River, the ancient Indians immediately mastered agriculture and grew many commercial crops, grains, and gardening. The Indians learned to tame animals, including cats and dogs, and raised chickens, sheep, goats and cows.

Various crafts were widespread. Ancient craftsmen were engaged in weaving, jewelry work, ivory and stone carving. Iron had not yet been discovered by the Indians, but they used bronze and copper as materials for tools.

Large cities were busy trading centers, and trade was carried out both within the country and far beyond its borders. Archaeological finds suggest that already in ancient times sea routes were established, and on the territory of India there were ports for connections with Mesopotamia and other eastern countries.

With the arrival of the Aryans, who were nomads and lagged behind the Indus civilization in development, a period of decline began. Only in the 2nd–1st millennia BC. e. India gradually began to revive, returning to agricultural activity.

In the river valleys, Indians begin to develop rice farming and grow legumes and cereals. The appearance of horses, which were unknown to local residents before the arrival of the Aryans, played an important role in the development of the economy. Elephants began to be used in cultivating and clearing land for planting. This greatly simplified the task of fighting the impenetrable jungle, which at that time occupied almost all areas suitable for agriculture.

Forgotten crafts - weaving and pottery - are beginning to revive. Having learned to mine iron, the metallurgical industry received a big boost. However, trade still did not reach the required level and was limited to exchanges with nearby settlements.

Ancient writing

The Indian civilization was so developed that it had its own special language. The age of the found tablets with writing samples is estimated at thousands of years, but until now scientists have not been able to decipher these ancient signs.

The language system of the ancient Indian people is very complex and diverse. It has about 400 hieroglyphs and signs - rectangular figures, waves, squares. The first examples of writing have survived to this day in the form of clay tablets. Archaeologists also discovered inscriptions on stones made using sharp stone objects. But the content of these ancient records, behind which there is a language that existed in ancient times, cannot be deciphered even with the use of computer technology.

The language of the ancient Indians, on the contrary, has been well studied by specialists in this field. They used Sanskrit, which provided the basis for the development of many Indian languages. Brahmins were considered the guardians of the language on earth. The privilege of studying Sanskrit extended only to the Aryans. Those who were in the lower classes of society did not have the right to learn to write.

Literary heritage

The ancient Indians left behind only a few scattered examples of writing that could not be analyzed and deciphered. Indians, on the contrary, created immortal written masterpieces. The most significant literary works are the Vedas, the poems “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, as well as mythological tales and legends that have survived to our time. Many texts written in Sanskrit greatly influenced the ideas and forms of later works.

The Vedas are considered the oldest literary source and religious book. It sets out the basic knowledge and wisdom of the ancient Indians, the chanting and glorification of the gods, descriptions of rituals and ritual songs. The influence of the Vedas on spiritual life and culture was so strong that an entire thousand-year period in history was called the Vedic culture.

Along with the Vedas, philosophical literature also developed, the task of which was to explain natural phenomena, the emergence of the Universe and man from a mystical point of view. Such works were called Upanishads. Under the guise of riddles or dialogues, the most important ideas in the spiritual life of people were described. There were also texts that were educational in nature. They were devoted to grammar, astrological knowledge and etymology.

Later, works of literature of an epic nature appeared. The poem "Mahabharata" is written in Sanskrit and tells about the struggle for the royal throne of the ruler, and also describes the life of Indians, their traditions, travel and wars of that time. The work "Ramayana" is considered a later epic and describes the life path of Prince Rama. This book illustrates many aspects of the life, beliefs and ideas of the ancient Indian people. Both of these works are of great literary interest. Under the general plot of the narrative, the poems combined many myths, fables, fairy tales and hymns. They had a significant influence on the formation of the religious ideas of the ancient Indians, and were also of great importance in the emergence of Hinduism.

Religious Beliefs of Indians

Scientists have little data about the religious beliefs of the ancient Indians. They revered the mother goddess, considered the bull a sacred animal and worshiped the god of cattle breeding. The Indians believed in other worlds, the transmigration of souls, and deified the forces of nature. At the excavations of ancient cities, the remains of pools were found, which makes it possible to assume the worship of water.

The beliefs of the ancient Indians were formed during the era of Vedic culture into two majestic religions - Hinduism and Buddhism. The Vedas were considered sacred and remained a storehouse of sacred knowledge. Along with the Vedas, they revered the Brahmans, who were the embodiment of the gods on earth.

Hinduism evolved from Vedic beliefs and underwent significant changes over time. The worship of the three main gods - Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva - comes to the fore. These deities were considered the creators of all earthly laws. The formed beliefs also absorbed pre-Aryan ideas about the gods. Descriptions of the six-armed god Shiva included the ancient Indian beliefs in a herder god who was depicted as having three faces. This assimilation of beliefs is characteristic of Judaism.

Already at the beginning of our era, the most important literary source appeared in Hinduism, considered sacred - “Bhagavad-Gita”, which means “Divine Song”. Relying on the caste division of society, religion became national for India. It not only describes divine laws, but is also intended to shape the lifestyle and ethical values ​​of its followers.

Much later Buddhism arose and was formed as a separate religion. The name comes from the name of its founder and means “enlightened one.” There is no reliable information about the biography of the Buddha, but the historicity of his personality as the founder of the religion is not disputed.

Buddhism does not involve the worship of a pantheon of gods or a single god, and does not recognize deities as the creators of the world. The only saint is considered to be the Buddha, that is, the one who has achieved enlightenment and “liberated”. At first, Buddhists did not build temples and did not attach much importance to rituals.

Followers believed that eternal bliss could only be achieved by living a correct life. Buddhism assumed the equality of all people by birth, regardless of caste, and the moral principles of behavior largely determined the life path of followers. The literary sources of Buddhism were written in Sanskrit. They explained the laws of the philosophical system of their teaching, the meaning of man and the ways of his development.

Having originated in the vastness of India, Buddhism was very soon supplanted by Judaism, but was able to spread and firmly take root in the neighboring countries of the East.

We can talk about this topic for a very long time, because the civilization that originated in the Indus Valley has a rich history. But in this article we will look briefly at the history of Ancient India.
The origin of organized society in the Indus Valley should be dated to the emergence of the Harappan civilization, which dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. e., and during this period its dawn comes.

Harappan civilization

Vedic civilization

Time of small principalities

Scientists consider the civilization of ancient India to be the third civilization on Earth. According to the data of modern archeology, it appeared after Egypt and Mesopotamia. Like all great civilizations, it began its existence at the mouth of the Indus River. True, they say that there used to be four more rivers there, but over time they disappeared. The area where it started ancient civilization of india has been under water for a long time. Archaeological research has shown the existence of remains of entire settlements under water. This region was called Punjab, which means five-speech. Further settlements extended to the territory of present-day Pakistan. The area was originally called Sindhu, but was pronounced "Hindu" by Persian travelers. And the Greeks shortened it to Indus.

The first of the states in the history of India

Three millennia BC, the first state with a slave system and a special culture was created in the Indus Valley. The indigenous people of the country were dark-skinned, short in stature and had black hair. Their descendants still live in the southern part of the country. They are called Dravidians. Writings made in the Dravidian language have been found. They have not yet been deciphered. It was developed civilization of ancient India. They built entire cities with geometrically regular streets. Even two-story buildings with running water were erected. People were mainly engaged in agriculture and raising livestock. Craftsmen made jewelry and elephant bones, stones, and metals. Trade developed with Indochina and Mesopotamia. There was a fortress in the central square of the city. They found refuge in it from enemies and floods.

But soon tribes of the ancient Aryans invade India. These are wandering nomads - pastoralists, for whom livestock is a great wealth, and the main food is milk. The Aryan tribes were led by Rajas. At the end of the millennium, the Aryans begin to clear and drain the Ganges valley, turning from nomads into farmers.

Creation of the State

As a result of leading a sedentary way of life, inequality in wealth appears among the Aryans inhabiting the territory of India. The wealth taken away in wars ends up in the hands of a small number of leaders. Hired warriors strengthen their power, which is passed on by inheritance. A class of slaves is created from the captives, and the rajas themselves become the heads of small powers. But in the process of war, these small powers are impoverished into one large state with its own system and hierarchy of rulers. A special type of inhabitants of the powers appears - priests. They are called brahmins and they support the existing system.

Formation of castes

A thousand years BC, the entire population was divided into four classes. They were called castes. The first caste, the highest, united brahmins who did not work and lived on money from sacrifices. The second caste is called Kshatriya. These were warriors, they ruled the state. The first two castes constantly competed with each other. The third caste - the Vaishevas - are farmers, people of trade and herding cattle. And the fourth caste was formed from the conquered local population and was called Shudras. These are servants who perform simple and hard work. Slaves were not allowed into any of the castes. The formation of castes hampered the development of society. But castes also played a positive role. The former tribal relations disappeared. People of various tribes could unite in one state.

The first great state in history of ancient India There was a Mauryan state. Artificial irrigation added a lot of fertile land. Trade deals flourish, castes grow richer and poorer. To maintain power, as a result of the struggle between small states, King Chandragupta comes to power, who founded the Mauryan dynasty. The United Kingdom reached its peak 200 BC by annexing a number of neighboring regions.

In the first half of the fourth century, a new strong Gupta state was created with its center in Magatha. The rulers of this kingdom conquered the Ganges Valley and Central India. Indians are exploring new lands, artisans have learned to make fine cotton and silk products. India trades actively with other countries. Already in the fifth century, innovations in agriculture were introduced. Farmers are given pieces of land for temporary use for a certain share of the harvest. At the same time, the slave class disappears. The final abandonment of slavery occurred with the appearance of the Huns in India, who founded their possessions there.

Penetration of Islam

IN history of ancient India Since the seventh century, Islam appeared in the country. In the thirteenth century, the armies of Tamerlane appeared in India. They conquered almost the entire territory of the country and founded the "Mongol Empire", which lasted until the beginning of the nineteenth century. And in the middle of this century, Great Britain began to lead the country. In 1947, India finally gained independence. But there was a division into two parts - India and Pakistan. In 1950, India became a democratic federal republic.

The origin of the philosophical movement in Ancient India occurred two millennia BC. She studied the relationship between man and nature and the existence of the human body and soul.

The oldest philosophy of India is the Vedas. This is a collection of spells, rituals, prayers addressed to the higher forces of nature. Shows people's ideas about morality and morality. Divided into four parts: hymns, rituals, rules of human life and sacred knowledge. The Vedas are the basis of all schools of philosophy in the world. A characteristic feature of Vedic belief is polytheism. This is the worship of multiple gods. They had the properties of a person or half-man - half-beast. The main god was Indra - the warrior. They revered Agni - the god of fire, Surya - the god of the sun and others. According to belief, the world is divided into three spheres: heaven, earth and ether.

The ongoing changes in society, division into castes led to the fact that only a small number of people began to understand the Vedas. Then in philosophical schools of ancient India Brahmins appeared who interpreted Vedic texts. This gave rise to the period of Brahmanism. Vedic philosophy accepted new knowledge and rituals, and the brahmins supported them. The essence of Brahmanism: the main god Prajapati is the owner of all living things and the Lord of rebirths. He requires sacrifices. Brahmins became equal to God.

Brahmanism became the basis of Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism is a continuation of Brahmanism but taking into account local religions. Hinduism speaks of a creator god, a hierarchy of gods. Three main gods appeared.

Although Buddhism appeared much later than Vedism, over several centuries it became the religion of many peoples of the world. Coming out of India, it gained a foothold in Asian countries. The founder of the religion is Buddha. The main idea of ​​religion is the idea of ​​nirvana, which preaches the salvation of man through liberation. On this path there are certain rules, which are called commandments. The Buddha explained what suffering comes from and how to free yourself from it. Religion stands for the idea of ​​equality of all people.

Man has always strived for knowledge and this is the engine of development of society. At all times, the path to this knowledge has been illuminated by philosophy. Expressed in different movements of religion and scientific research, it still helps to find answers to exciting questions about the meaning of existence.

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