Anatomy is the science of the structure of the human body and its organs.

Anatomy is a very ancient science. Its age is several thousand years. The first anatomical information is found already in written sources of the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, although it is scanty and often inaccurate. The inaccuracy of the descriptions may be explained by the fact that, for example, in ancient Greece it was forbidden to dissect human corpses, and Aristotle, who was interested, among other things, in anatomy, was forced to satisfy his scientific interest by dissecting animal corpses. The Roman physician Claudius Galen also dissected the corpses of animals, particularly monkeys, believing that their anatomy differed little from that of humans. Occasionally, Galen managed to study the human body - he dissected the corpses of suicides caught from the Tiber. Galen compiled detailed descriptions of bones, joints, muscles, etc. For many centuries, Galen's works remained the main source of knowledge on anatomy. A doctor from Bukhara, Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna), made a great contribution to the development of anatomy as a science, despite the fact that the Muslim religion forbade performing autopsies.

A thorough study of the human body begins in Europe during the Renaissance, when the Catholic Church somewhat relaxed the ban on autopsies. Leonardo da Vinci, an artist and scientist, begins to systematically dissect corpses and make sketches with detailed descriptions. He performed several dozen autopsies and left behind 13 volumes of drawings on anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci dispelled misconceptions regarding some organs, for example, the heart, brain, he discovered the thyroid gland, and classified muscles. The real reformer of the science of anatomy was the Fleming Andrei Vesalius (1514-1564), who came from the family of a court pharmacist. He studied at the University of Louvain, then at the University of Paris with the famous anatomist Silvius. Afterwards, while studying anatomy on his own, he experienced considerable difficulties. He had to steal bones from cemeteries from graves dug up by dogs, and also take away the corpses of executed criminals at night and secretly open them in the dungeon. One can imagine what rumors a contemporary would have started about Vesalius if he had found out about his actions. Since 1537, Andrei Vesalius has lived in the Venetian Republic. At the University of Padua, a young doctor of medicine teaches anatomy. The government of the Venetian Republic supported educated people and created more or less favorable conditions for the development of science. Vesalius has the opportunity to continue his research. Surrounded by hundreds of students, he performs one autopsy after another. There was no particular shortage of “material”: Vesalius was allowed to autopsy the corpses of executed criminals.

Vesalius refuted many of Galen's ideas that existed before his time, including those about the structure of the human heart and the seat of the soul. The students and followers of Vesalius - Bartolomeo Eustachius, Gabriel Fallopius, Leonardo Botallo, Constanzo Varolius and others also devoted their lives to anatomical research, and in modern medical terminology their names can be found (Eustachian tube, Botallo duct, Varoliev bridge, etc.) .

Since the 17th century Anatomy as a science is being intensively developed by universities in England, France and the Netherlands. Frederic Ruysch creates an anatomical museum, William Harvey publishes the famous “Anatomical study on the movement of the heart and blood in animals,” Marcello Malpighi discovered capillary vessels in the kidneys and lungs.

At the same time, great interest in anatomy appeared in Russia. Epiphan Slavinetsky translated the book of Vesalius into Russian, Peter I bought and transported to Russia a collection of Ruysch's anatomical preparations, the Main Naval Hospital in St. Petersburg began teaching the science of anatomy with public dissection of corpses, and an anatomical atlas was published in the mid-18th century. The names of the first Russian anatomists are widely known: Lomonosov's student A.P. Protasov, professor of the Moscow Hospital School K.I. Shchepin, S.G. Zybelin, who taught an anatomy course at Moscow University, surgeon and at the same time excellent draftsman M.I. Sheina.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the first textbooks on anatomy appeared in Russia: the manual by P. A. Zagorsky “Towards knowledge of the structure of the human body”, “Anatomy Course” by E. O. Mukhin; M. I. Shein translated a work on Heister’s anatomy into Russian.

Truly the father of topographic anatomy can be called N.I. Pirogov, who created the doctrine of the location of the main blood vessels and nerve trunks, who invented the method of cutting frozen corpses for studying topography: cuts are made in different planes and this clarifies the picture of the relative position of organs.

The scientist P. F. Lesgaft owns many works on theoretical anatomy. He studied functional anatomical connections. The subject of his famous book “Fundamentals of Theoretical Anatomy” is the interdependence of the functions of organs and their structure.

The Soviet anatomist V.P. Vorobyov came up with the idea of ​​a new approach to the study of human anatomy, not in statics, as was done before, but in dynamics. Vorobyov is the author of the multi-volume Atlas of Human Anatomy. Together with Professor B.I. Zbarsky, Vorobyov embalmed Lenin’s body.

Anatomy is one of the basic medical sciences. Without knowledge of anatomy, it is impossible to understand the vital functions of the body, the causes and development of diseases. Anatomy as a science is closely related to many other sciences, in particular, physiology, histology (the science of tissues), cytology (the science of cells). Anatomy consists of a number of sections. Osteology is a section that examines the skeletal system, angiology deals with the vascular system, myology deals with the muscular system, neurology deals with the nervous system, splanchnology deals with the organs of the digestive, respiratory, genitourinary systems, etc.

Depending on the presentation, a distinction is made between systematic or descriptive anatomy (the shape and structure of organs is described here), topographical (dealing not with individual organs and systems, but with the entirety of them in a certain part of the body), which is of great importance in surgery, and plastic, which pays special attention to study of the external forms of the body.

If anatomy deals with the study of healthy organs and systems, then it is called normal anatomy, but if it examines painful changes in organs, it is called pathological.

Comparative anatomy (this term was proposed by the English philosopher Francis Bacon) studies similar features in the structure of various animals and humans. Comparative anatomy illuminates the origins and relationships between different groups of organisms during the process of evolution.

To prevent rotting processes in body tissues, anatomists use formaldehyde, alcohol and other liquids.

The premises in which dissections, dissections and teaching of anatomical knowledge are performed are traditionally called anatomical theaters.

The anatomical instrumentation is very diverse. This includes scalpels, scissors of various types, tweezers, saws, syringes, hooks, bone cutters, clamps, mirrors, etc. Microscopes, X-ray machines, and, more recently, computers are widely used.

The science of anatomy what does it study

Anatomy is the science that studies the shape and structure of the human body. It belongs to the medical and biological sciences. Along with biology, physiology, biochemistry, biomechanics, sports medicine and other disciplines, it creates a natural science basis for physical education and physical education.

Anatomy studies the patterns of development and structure of the human body in connection with its function, the characteristics of the origin of man and his interaction with the environment. Human anatomy cannot be understood without knowing its anthropogenesis - the origin of a species, phylogeny - the evolutionary development of lower and higher organisms, and ontogenesis - the process of individual human development from fertilization to death.

Domestic anatomy thanks to the outstanding scientist P.F. Lesgaftu (1837-1909) developed as functional anatomy. She did not limit herself to describing the structure of the human body, but sought to connect all the structural features with the uniqueness of the functions. In 1884 P.F. Lesgaft published “Fundamentals of Theoretical Anatomy,” in which he first outlined new views and approaches to the study of human structure.

P.F. Lesgaft clearly showed that the formation of an organism occurs in a certain biological and social environment, and he assigned a particularly significant role to the influence of the external environment. From his theoretical positions P.F. Lesgaft made an important practical conclusion: a special set of systematic training loads aimed at increasing the function of organs must inevitably lead to a change in their shape and structure, supporting and consolidating the new function.

P.F. Lesgaft was the first to establish and prove the connection between the anatomical structure of the body and the impact of physical activity on it, creating a scientifically based system of physical education.

Traditionally, the main method of research in anatomy is the study of a corpse by opening body cavities and dissecting organs and tissues with cutting instruments, i.e. the method of dismembering a whole corpse into parts, which is where the name anatomy comes from (anatomio - “I cut”). However, according to the apt remark of P.F. Lesgaft, the main object of study of anatomy should be a living person, and the corpse should serve as a complement to the general process of cognition. Recently, in anatomy, the study of a living person has been widely used using various research methods: anthroposcopy, or somatoscopy (external examination), anthropometry, or somatometry (measurement of body size and proportions). The X-ray method has great potential in the study of “living anatomy”. It allows you to study the location and structure of organs on a living person and is used in the form of radiography (with subsequent study of images) and fluoroscopy - transillumination on a special screen. The founders of the X-ray method in anatomy were domestic anatomists P.F. Lesgaft and V.N. Tonkov.

Research on humans is often complemented by experiments on animals (experimental anatomy), since in an experiment it is possible to create a wide range of effects on the body, including dosed physical activity.

Another advantage of experimental anatomy is the ability to use all modern methods for processing and studying the obtained material: histological, cytogenetic, electron microscopic, immunohistochemical and others.

The study of the external shape and internal structure of organs can take place at two levels: with the naked eye or with devices with low magnification - this is macroscopic anatomy (macros - “large”, scopeo - “I look”). In contrast, there is microscopic anatomy (micros - “small”). She studies the details of the fine structure of the body using a light microscope, which magnifies the image 400-800 times, as well as an electronic microscope, which magnifies the object 100,000 times or more.

In microscopic anatomy, there is a science about the cell - cytology (cytos - “cell”, logos - “teaching”), the science about the tissues of the body - histology (gistos - “tissue”).

Anatomy, histology, cytology and embryology constitute the general science of the form, structure and development of an organism, called morphology (morphe - “shape”).

Depending on the target and practical orientation of anatomy, they are distinguished:
- normal anatomy;
- pathological anatomy;
- topographic anatomy;
- plastic anatomy;
- age anatomy;
- dynamic anatomy;
- sports morphology.

Each of the listed varieties has a certain meaning for physical education specialists. The most important is normal anatomy, since it forms the general basis of an athlete's knowledge of a healthy person.

Knowledge of pathological anatomy is necessary when it comes to overtraining, chronic and acute injuries in athletes.

In practical activities, a teacher or trainer has to deal with people of different genders and ages, therefore knowledge about the age and gender characteristics of the human body is necessary, which is the subject of age-related anatomy.

Topographic anatomy, which studies the relative position of organs, is of great importance, especially for those who will master sports massage and traumatology.

External forms and proportional features of a person (plastic anatomy) play a large role in selection and sports orientation.

The ability to use knowledge of anatomy in analyzing body positions and movements, i.e. dynamic anatomy (studying the analysis of muscle function and joint movements) is necessary for future specialists in physical education and sports.

Sports morphology has achieved significant development in recent years. This branch of functional anatomy studies the effects of systematic physical activity in sports on the structure of the athlete’s body (adaptation); studies the structural features of the body that help achieve high results in sports (orientation) and teaches methods that allow assessing the physical development of an athlete (training control). This discipline directly invades elite sports, where the results are so dense that the ability to use the individual characteristics of the body’s structure, all other things being equal, helps to achieve victory.

At the origins of domestic sports morphology was P.F. Lesgaft, who was the first to reveal the patterns of bone restructuring under the influence of muscle traction: the bone increases in size, the more significantly, the greater the activity of the muscles surrounding it.

The further development of sports morphology is associated with the names of such scientists as V.V. Bunak, M.F. Ivanitsky, M.R. Sapin, A.A. Gladysheva, V.I. Kozlov, B.A. Nikityuk, G.E. Martirosov, P.K. Lysov and others. Scientists from the Department of Anatomy of NSU are also actively engaged in research in the field of sports morphology. P.F. Lesgafta.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF A LIVING ORGANISM. In modern morphology, there are five levels of organization of the human body (Fig. 1).

1. Subcellular. At the biochemical level, tissues are composed of molecules that combine into micro- and macromolecules.
2. Cellular. A cell is an elementary particle of a living thing, capable of transmitting genetic information through self-reproduction, which is a complex system of biopolymers that form intracellular structures - organelles.
3. Fabric. Tissue is an evolutionarily developed collection of cells and intercellular substance that have a common origin, structure and function.
4. Organ. Organs are complex structures consisting of various tissues and having a certain spatial shape, specialized to perform a specific function.
5. System. Organs of different structures, connected by the performance of the same function, are combined into organ systems or apparatuses. An organism is characterized by a combination of all the above levels of structural organization. Its integrity is ensured due to close functional and intertissue relationships, as well as nervous and humoral regulation.

Lecture No. 1

Subject "Introduction to the Subject"

Plan:

1) Concept of the subject Human Anatomy and Physiology

2) Basic physiological terms

3) Human constitution. Great scientists of anatomy and physiology.

1. Anatomy and physiology as sciences

These are the components of biology - the science of all living things. They form the foundation of medical education and medical science. The achievements of these disciplines allow doctors to consciously intervene in life processes in order to change them in the direction necessary for a person: to treat professionally, to promote the harmonious development of the human body and to meet its needs.

Anatomy is the science of human structure, taking into account the biological patterns inherent in all living organisms, as well as age, gender and individual characteristics.

Anatomy - morphological science ( from Greek morhe- form). At the present stage there are anatomy

- descriptive- description of organs during autopsy;

-systematic- studies the structure of the human body according to systems - a systematic approach;

-topographical - studies the location of organs and their relationships with each other, their projections onto the skeleton and skin;

-plastic - external forms and proportions of the human body;

-functional - the structure of the body is considered inextricably linked with function - functional approach;

-age - human body structure depending on age;

-comparative - compares the structure of various animals and humans;

-pathological anatomy - has emerged as an independent science, studying organs and tissues damaged by one or another disease.

Modern anatomy is functional, since it examines the structure of the human body in connection with its functions. The main methods of anatomical research are the study of the macroscopic and microscopic structure of organs.

Physiology- the science of life processes (functions) and the mechanisms of their regulation in cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and the entire human body.

Human physiology is divided into normal- studies the activities of a healthy body - and pathological- patterns of occurrence and development of a particular disease, as well as mechanisms of recovery and rehabilitation.

Normal physiology is divided into:

On general, studying the general patterns of human life, his reactions to environmental influences;

- special (frequent)- features of the functioning of individual tissues, organs and systems;

-applied- patterns of manifestation of human activity in connection with special tasks and conditions (physiology of work, sports, nutrition).

The main research method is experiment:

-spicy- artificial isolation of organs, administration of drugs, etc.;

-chronic- targeted surgical operations.

In all cases, the characteristics characteristic of each individual person are taken into account ( individual approach), simultaneously find out the causes and factors affecting the human body ( causal approach), the characteristics of each organ are analyzed ( analytical approach, by systems ( systematic approach) human body, the whole organism is studied by approaching it systematically.

Systematic anatomy studies the structure normal, that is healthy, a person whose tissues and organs are not changed as a result of illness or developmental disorder. In connection with this normal (from lat. normali s- normal, correct) can be considered a human structure that ensures the full performance of body functions. This concept is conditional, since there are construction options the body of a healthy person, extreme forms and typical, most common, which are determined by both hereditary factors and environmental factors.

The most pronounced persistent congenital abnormalities anomalies(from Greek anomalia - irregularity). Some anomalies do not change a person’s appearance (right-sided position of the heart), others are pronounced and have external manifestations. Such developmental anomalies are called deformities(underdevelopment of the skull, limbs, etc.). Science studies deformities teratology(from Greek teras, gender teratos-freak).

Anatomy is a branch of biology (internal morphology). Anatomy studies the human body in systems (systematic anatomy). Accordingly, it consists of a number of sections: the study of the skeletal system - osteology; the study of bone joints, joints and ligaments - syndesmology and arthrology; the study of the muscular system - myology; the study of the vascular system - angiology; the study of the nervous system - neurology; the study of the sense organs - aesthesiology. The anatomy of internal organs is divided into a special section - splanchnology. Systematic anatomy is complemented by topographic, or regional, which primarily describes the spatial relationships of organs, which is of particular interest to. The study of the structure of the body without weapons is the subject of macroscopic anatomy. The use of a microscope allows one to study the fine structure of organs - microscopic anatomy.

The term “normal anatomy” emphasizes its difference from pathological anatomy, which studies changes in organs and systems in diseases. An important phase in the study of body structure is analysis, accompanied by a thorough description (descriptive anatomy). The study of the structure of the body in dynamics in connection with functions determines the content of functional anatomy, a special section of which is experimental anatomy. Peculiarities of the structure of the body and organs in the process of individual development of the organism are studied by age-related anatomy. Plastic anatomy, which studies the external forms and proportions of the human body, is of great practical importance for the fine arts. Comparative anatomy systematizes data on the anatomy of representatives of the animal world to identify the anatomical features of humans that have developed in the process of evolution.

Modern anatomy has accumulated a large amount of material on the intravital structure of organs, obtained with the help of and (x-ray anatomy).

This section of the site is a textbook on human anatomy in pictures. It sets out questions on the history of anatomy, general issues, the structure of the musculoskeletal system, digestive, respiratory, genitourinary systems and endocrine glands. The following outlines the structure of the cardiovascular system, lymphatic system, central nervous system with pathways, peripheral nervous system, brain nerves, autonomic nervous system, sensory organs. The material is presented according to a systematic principle; in each section, functional and topographic-anatomical features, organogenesis, age-related features, developmental anomalies are noted, and comparative anatomical data are provided. The anatomical atlas is illustrated with color pictures and diagrams.

This textbook “Human Anatomy” is intended for students of medical institutes and corresponds to the curriculum. The material in the textbook is presented in such a way that particular issues are first examined, then embryological and phylogenetic data. Many sections contain information about the age, topographic and functional characteristics of organs. The summary data on blood supply and innervation given in other textbooks is omitted in this manual due to the fact that during the period of studying internal organs, students are still unfamiliar with the structure of the circulatory and lymphatic systems, as well as the nervous system. Such material is useful for doctors and should be presented in a manual or, as a last resort, in a textbook of topographic anatomy. In this manual, sections relating to the structure of bones, ligaments and muscles are presented more briefly, and the structure of internal organs - in more detail. This is due to the fact that in practice a doctor is more often faced with diseases of internal organs.

The manual has many illustrations that will help you understand the material. Naturally, the goal of training is not to memorize many anatomical terms, which without proper reinforcement will be completely forgotten over time, but to understand the general plan of the human structure. Anatomy is part of biology, therefore the structure of all organs, systems, and the living organism as a whole are considered in terms of their development and functional relationships. The study of human anatomy from the correct methodological positions from the first days of acquaintance with medicine should contribute to the formation of materialistic thinking and worldview of a doctor, since anatomy, together with biology, histology, physiology, pathology and biochemistry, forms the foundation of theoretical training. Like any science, anatomy includes questions of applied importance that are important for clinical medicine, biological questions needed to expand a doctor’s horizons and needed to answer the natural question: “How does a person work?” There is an opinion that human anatomy is supposedly difficult. Our knowledge about the most perfect and wonderful creation of nature, which is man, is still incomplete today, but, as the history of anatomy shows, they were even more primitive 2000-3000 years ago. And if much has been achieved on the path to understanding the human structure, it is only thanks to the human mind and its curiosity. Once upon a time, scientists were happy if they were able to look into the womb of a creature similar to themselves, but now, calling on the help of modern achievements of applied and fundamental sciences, they reveal molecular combinations and understand their own nature. There are many difficulties and many joys on these paths. Knowledge of the human structure is the internal need of a student who has devoted his life to the most noble cause - the deliverance of humanity from suffering, who has chosen the profession of a doctor, which, since ancient times, requires a person to give all the fullness of his moral and intellectual strength.

Man has undergone a complex biological evolution and united in himself, on the biological side, a natural being, and on the historical side, a social being. Its structure and functions are fully cognizable by biology and social laws. Human anatomy belongs to the biological sciences. Human anatomy is a science that studies the origin, development, external and internal structure, and functional characteristics of a living person. Human anatomy aims to describe the shape, macroscopic structure, topography of organs, taking into account the sexual, individual, constitutional characteristics of the organism, as well as phylogenetic (from phylon - genus, genesis - development) and ontogenetic (from ontos - individual) developmental aspects. The study of the human structure is carried out from the standpoint of the whole organism. Anatomy also attracts data from anthropology - the science of man. Anthropology examines not only age, gender and individual characteristics of a person, but also racial, ethnic, professional characteristics, studies social influences, and clarifies the factors that determine the historical development of a person. Thus, biology views man from an evolutionary perspective, which plays a role in the formation of the materialistic worldview of the Soviet doctor.

Human anatomy is of great practical importance for medicine. Anatomy, together with histology, physiology, biochemistry and other disciplines, forms the basis of theoretical knowledge in the training of a doctor. The outstanding physiologist I.P. Pavlov noted that only by knowing the structure and functions of organs can we correctly understand the causes of diseases and the possibilities of their elimination. Without knowledge of the human structure, it is impossible to understand the changes caused by the disease, to establish the localization of the pathological process, to perform surgical interventions, and, consequently, to correctly diagnose diseases and treat patients. On this issue, 170 years ago, one of the outstanding Russian doctors E. Mukhin (1766-1850) spoke very figuratively: “A doctor who is not an anatomist is not only useless, but also harmful.” When, during the period of scholasticism and the influence of religion (13th century), doctors were forbidden to dissect corpses and study even the basics of anatomy, the doctors’ knowledge was so primitive that the public demanded permission from the church to dissect corpses.

What is the content of anatomy? The term “anatomy” comes from the ancient Greek word anatemnein - I cut, dismember. This is explained by the fact that the first and main method of human research was the method of dismembering a corpse. Nowadays, when a researcher uses many other methods to understand the internal and external structure of a living person, anatomy does not correspond to the content of its name. Nevertheless, even now, to describe the structure and topography of organs, dissection of a corpse is used, which is one of the methods for studying the shape and structure. However, the structure of organs and their functions can be fully understood only by combining many research methods.

1. Using the method of anthropometry, you can measure height, the relationship of parts, establish body weight, constitution, individual structural features of a person, his race.

2. Using the dissection method, it is possible to dissect tissue layer by layer in order to study them and isolate muscles, blood vessels, nerves and other formations visible to the naked eye from the surrounding tissues and fiber. This method allows you to obtain data on the shape of organs and their relationships.

3. Using the injection method, the colored mass, diluted with drying oil, kerosene, gasoline, chloroform, ether or other solvents is filled with the body cavity, the lumen of the bronchial tree, intestines, blood and lymphatic vessels. The method was first used in the 16th century. Hardening masses in the form of latex (liquid rubber), polymers, molten wax or metal are also used for injection. Thanks to the injection method, knowledge about the structure of the vascular system has been significantly expanded. The injection method has proven to be especially useful in cases where subsequent corrosion and clarification of organs and tissues occur.

4. The corrosion method was first used by Swammerdam (XVII century), and in Russia by I.V. Buyalsky. An organ with blood vessels filled with a hardened mass was immersed in warm water and kept in it for a long time. The surrounding tissues rotted and only an impression of the hardened mass remained. This process can be accelerated when the tissue is destroyed by concentrated acid or alkali, as is currently used. Using the corrosion method, you can see the true shape of the cavity into which the mass was poured. The disadvantage of this method is that the impression of the cavity is not interconnected with the tissues.

5. Method of enlightenment. After tissue dehydration, the drug is soaked in liquid. In this case, the refractive index of the impregnated fabric is close to the refractive index of the liquid. Injected blood vessels or stained nerves will be visible on these relatively clear preparations. The advantage of this method over the corrosion method is that in cleared preparations the spatial arrangement of blood vessels or nerves is preserved.

6. The microscopic method, which uses a relatively small magnification, has now become widespread in anatomy. Thanks to the use of this method, it was possible to see formations that could not be detected on histological sections. For example, using the method of microscopic anatomy, networks of blood and lymphatic capillaries, intraorgan plexuses of blood vessels and nerves were identified, the structure and shape of lobules, acini, etc. were clarified.

7. Using fluoroscopy and radiography, it is possible to study the intravital form and functional characteristics of organs in a living person. These methods have also been successfully used in cadaveric studies. The combination of injection of contrast agents followed by radiography is very widely used in clinical practice and experiment. Due to this contrast, the studied formations are more clearly highlighted on the screen or imprinted on X-ray film.

8. The method of transillumination by reflected rays is mainly used on a living person, for example, to study the blood capillaries of the skin, mucous membranes (capillaroscopy), and vessels of the retina.

9. The method of endoscopic examination allows, using instruments inserted through natural and artificial openings, to examine the color, relief of organs and mucous membranes.

10. The experimental method in anatomy is used to determine the functional significance of an organ, tissue or system. It allows you to establish the plasticity of tissues, their regenerative abilities, etc. With the help of experiments, you can obtain a lot of new data on the restructuring of organs and the body in response to external influences.

11. The mathematical method is often used in anatomical studies, since, unlike other methods, it allows one to derive more reliable quantitative indicators. With the development of electronic computing technology, mathematical methods will take a leading place in morphological research.

12. The illustration method is used to convey an accurate documentary image or in the form of creating schematic drawings of anatomical structures. Accurate anatomical data can be documented by taking photographs and then making photographic prints or black-and-white or color transparencies (slides) that are projected on a screen. During preparation, many anatomical structures, especially those located in different planes, cannot be photographed. In these cases, an accurate sketch of the preparation is made. Sometimes it is necessary to create diagrams. The creation of anatomical diagrams is due to the fact that neither photographs nor accurate drawings convey the internal architecture of the organ, for example, the structure of the glands, the topography of the conductive tracts of the brain and spinal cord, etc. A schematic drawing represents the most complex form of preparing illustrations. This complexity is due to the fact that the schemes are created on the basis of data obtained by preparation methods, histological, histochemical, electronographic and experimental studies and clinical observations. By synthesizing data from many methods, it is possible to create schematic drawings.

In anatomical studies, filming is now widely used, especially when documenting moving objects. This method makes it possible to document the sequence of autopsy and dissection of a corpse, topographic and anatomical data. Using the filming method, it is possible to clearly show functional disorders during experimental studies: the movement of blood, lymph, the secretion of urine, saliva, the function of the musculoskeletal system, etc.

13. The ultrasound scanning method is relatively new and is not yet used enough in anatomical studies. Currently used in clinical practice to identify the topography and shape of organs in pathological conditions, the position of the fetus in the womb, the relief of the cranial cavity, the spinal canal, purulent cavities, echinococcal bladders, stones of the bile duct and urinary system, and sometimes tumor nodes.

14. The holography method is used to obtain a three-dimensional image of an object using laser beams. It represents a new methodological direction in the technology of scientific research and will play a significant role in the development of morphological science.

The most important requirement of science, based on the foundations of dialectical materialism, is the study of things and phenomena in their origin and development using the historical method. V.I. Lenin directed scientists to look at things from a historical perspective: “... To approach a question from a scientific point of view means not to forget the basic historical connection, to look at each question from the point of view of how a known phenomenon in history arose, what main stages in its development this phenomenon went through, and from the point of view of this development, look at what this thing has become now.” The historical approach uses materials from anthropology, paleontology, comparative anatomy, embryology, which allows us to study man as a social being. social, which has undergone a complex evolution, actively adapting to nature and changing its psychophysiological characteristics under the influence of social conditions of the development of society.

Human anatomy can be studied methodically in different ways: according to individual systems (systematic anatomy); describe only the external form of a person (plastic, or relief, anatomy); study the structure of organs and systems depending on their functions (functional anatomy); study the relative position of systems and organs, taking into account age and individual characteristics (topographic anatomy), study the structure of organs at different age periods (age-related anatomy).

Systematic anatomy mainly describes the form, structure, topography, age characteristics, individual differences, development and anomalies, phylogenetic features of individual systems. This approach to the study of anatomy is most suitable for those who are not familiar with the subject, since the complex is decomposed into its component parts.

Plastic anatomy contains information about the external forms of the body, which are determined by the development of the bony skeleton, protruding tubercles and ridges palpated through the skin, the contours of muscle groups and muscle tone, the elasticity and color of the skin, the depth of its folds, and the thickness of subcutaneous fat. The condition of internal organs is studied only to such an extent as to show how this is reflected in the external structure. Plastic anatomy is of practical importance not only for artists and sculptors, but also for doctors, since external forms can be used to judge the state of human health.

Functional anatomy complements the data of descriptive anatomy. It sets the task of studying the structure of organs and systems in unity with function, considering the human body in dynamics, identifying mechanisms for restructuring the form under the influence of external factors.

Topographic anatomy studies the human structure in individual areas, the spatial relationship of organs and systems, taking into account individual and age characteristics. Elements of topographic anatomy necessarily accompany a systematic presentation of the material.

Age anatomy studies the structure of a person at different age periods. Under the influence of age and external factors, the structure and shape of human organs change with a certain pattern.

In children of the first years of life, adults and elderly people there are significant differences in the anatomical structure. In clinical practice, independent disciplines have even emerged, for example, pediatrics - the science of the child, geriatrics - the science of the elderly.

Along with descriptive human anatomy, it is necessary to study (at least in general terms) the anatomy of invertebrate and vertebrate animals - comparative anatomy. Based on the data of comparative anatomy, the evolution and development of living beings can be understood. Using comparative anatomical data and embryological data, which are presented mainly at the stage of organogenesis, it is possible to find common features that contribute to understanding the history of human development, its organs and systems.

Human understanding of the structure, composition, lifestyle and types of interaction of all living beings on the planet helps him to use this knowledge for his own purposes, for the benefit of the development of human civilization. Moreover, interest in the world around us has always been inherent in people. Since ancient times, man has been trying to figure out how organisms are structured, what they are like, what they are, and what their significance is.

That is why, over time, such a discipline as biology arose and gained enormous popularity among the sciences. At first it concerned only plants, then animals, humans, microorganisms, and finally reached the stage in its development when it became possible to look inside the tiniest creatures. On the path of formation, many subsidiary sciences sprang from biology, which now all form its essence in a comprehensive manner.

Biological Sciences

There are a number of different sciences that biology includes. Let's consider their classification.

I. General Sciences

1. Taxonomy.
2. Morphology (anatomy, histology, cytology).
3. Physiology.
4. Evolutionary doctrine.
5. Biogeography.
6. Ecology.
7. Genetics.

II. Complex

III. Private sciences

1. Botany.
2. Zoology.
3. Anthropology.

This method of dividing biological disciplines was proposed by the scientist B. G. Johansen in 1969, and it has not lost its relevance to this day. This classification covers almost all major disciplines, except the most modern ones - biotechnology, biochemistry, genetic and cellular engineering and some medical sciences.

Anatomy and related disciplines

One of the earliest and most important biological disciplines is anatomy. Here we will look at it in more detail.

First, the question arises: what is anatomy? What is she studying? Several answers can be formulated. But the essence is the following.

Anatomy is the science of the shape of organs and organ systems, their structure and functioning. This discipline is a section of morphology and itself includes two varieties:

• plant anatomy - the structure, shape and arrangement of organs and tissues in plant creatures;
• The anatomy of animals and humans is all the same, only for representatives of the fauna.

Anatomy and other sciences are in close interaction, and this is not surprising. It is difficult to study the molecular structure of a liver cell if you do not know what the liver is, where it is located and what functions it performs. Therefore, this discipline occupies a very important place in the general system of biological sciences.

Anatomy itself is divided into the following varieties:

• comparative;
• systematic;
• age;
• topographical;
• plastic;
• functional;
• experimental morphology.

Each section has its own goals and objectives of study, its own object and subject of research and makes a very large contribution to the accumulation of a theoretical knowledge base in biology.

Goals and objectives of science

Anatomy - what exactly does this discipline study? To answer, let us turn to the goals and objectives of this science.

Goal: to form accurate theoretical knowledge, supported by experimental practical research, about the structure of the human body, the shape and position of its organs and systems, their formation in the process of evolution and transformation over time under the influence of environmental factors.

In connection with this goal, anatomy is a science that solves the following problems:

1. To study the stages of formation of man and his body in the process of evolutionary development.
2. Consider the structure of organs, their systems and study patterns of change as a result of age-related changes.
3. Investigate the influence of environmental conditions and factors on the development and formation of organs and systems of the human body.

Thus, we received a specific and complete answer to the question “Anatomy - what is it?” and we can move on to consider the history of the development of this science.

History of anatomy as a science

As a science, this discipline was formed only in the 18th century. However, theoretical knowledge began to accumulate in ancient times, thanks to the works of such great people as Hippocrates, Aristotle, Herophilus, Erasistratus and others.

Let us more fully and clearly consider how anatomy (the science of man) was formed by era in the form of a table.

Of course, this is not a complete list of names whose works are of great theoretical and practical value in the development of such a science as anatomy.

What is anatomy today? Modern scientists also do not stop there. New discoveries of certain structures and their functions occur periodically. This means that some processes are still incomprehensible to a person, and he has something to strive for.

Relationship between anatomy and physiology

Anatomy and physiology are very closely related to each other. As sciences, only in combination can they provide complete information about the structure, form, structure and functioning of a particular organ or system. That is why, along with the corresponding anatomical sciences, there is the physiology of plants and animals, including humans.

This is a very important interaction that allows us to more deeply understand the mechanisms of the human body. This means managing them correctly. In turn, such data are extremely important for medicine. So it turns out that almost all biological sciences are a closely intertwined ball, by pulling a thread of which you can obtain unique and complete information about any living creature.

Anatomy for schoolchildren

In the school curriculum, one of the important subjects for high school students is anatomy. In what grade does it begin? It is taught as a science starting from the eighth grade. But the first knowledge about the structure of the human body and the functioning of organs is given already in elementary school.

Studying a subject in primary school

Naturally, they do not begin to study this discipline in the first grade, although some anatomical concepts are explained to children in an abstract and accessible form. For example, sitting incorrectly at a desk can lead to curvature of the spine. As a rule, at this age all children already know where the spine is. And only in the fourth grade does “real” anatomy begin. 4th grade is the final stage of primary education. Children are well prepared to learn to understand the most basic anatomical processes. The training is provided by the program in the course of the discipline “The World around us”. Children are given the general topography of organs in the human body, their names and the names of the systems that they form. There is also an emphasis on the functions performed.

Anatomy for 8th grade

At the middle stage of education, human anatomy is studied in most detail and completely. 8th grade involves a whole year of careful and voluminous consideration of the issues of this discipline. During this period, everything is studied, from the history of the development of anatomy to issues of higher nervous activity and childbirth.

Children are told about all the features of the structure and functioning of organ systems and their individual parts, and detailed information is provided about the influence of external factors on human development. Issues of evolution and formation of the human race are addressed. That is, human anatomy is studied in conjunction with other sciences.

The textbook "Grade 8. Anatomy" contains clearly illustrated, high-quality and accessible information on all issues of the discipline. In addition, it comes with electronic manuals that allow you to study scientific issues virtually. Workbooks for students, as well as a number of teaching aids for teachers, have been created to accompany the textbook.

This makes it possible to consolidate the knowledge that biology (human anatomy) provides. 8th grade is not the only one in which anatomical issues are addressed, but it is the main one.

Studying discipline in 9th grade school

In some schools, this science is relevant at a later time - in the 9th grade course. Many believe that, due to the complexity of the subject, learning will best occur precisely during this teenage, more adult period of the formation of children's consciousness.

However, there is no doubt that earlier study of the discipline is no less effective. After all, there are many sections that biology offers students. Grade 9 “Human Anatomy” shifts to earlier stages of study such complex issues as the molecular structure of cells and organisms in general, evolutionary teaching. Therefore, it is difficult to say at what age it is better to study an anatomy course. Anatomy is a science that primarily studies the structure and functions of the human body. Therefore, putting off studying “on the back burner” hardly makes sense.

10th grade and anatomy

Previously (until the 1980s), this discipline generally took place only in high school. It was at the last stage of education that anatomy appeared. 10th grade was considered the most suitable time for this.

Modern children are growing up in an era of intense changes in science and technology. Their consciousness is more full, they have become much more developed and capable. The volume of material to be studied has also increased significantly, and teaching methods and methods have changed (improved). Therefore, transferring the study of anatomy to the 8th grade has its own logical explanations and is not something negative.