Human psychology. The sensory tissue of consciousness contains. Memorization with a special “remember” attitude and requiring certain volitional efforts is ... memory

“It is noteworthy that until the second half of the 30s, subject indexes to books on psychology, as a rule, did not contain the term “personality” at all.

At the present stage of improvement of socialist society, the task of forming a harmoniously developed, socially active personality, combining spiritual wealth, moral purity and physical perfection, has been set. Consequently, philosophical, psychological, sociological research of personality becomes a priority and attracts special public attention due to its not only theoretical but also practical significance. […]

One of the attempts to solve this problem is our proposed concept of personalization of an individual in a system of activity-mediated relationships with other people. This concept is a further development of the psychological theory of the collective. It creates an idea of ​​the psychological structure of personality, the patterns of its formation and development, and offers new methodological tools for its study.

The starting point for constructing the concept of personalization of an individual is the idea of ​​unity, but not the identity of the concepts of “personality” and “individual”. […]

Personality is a systemic social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication, and also characterizing the level and quality of social relations reflected in the individual.

If we recognize that personality is the quality of an individual, then we thereby affirm the unity of the individual and personality and at the same time deny the identity of these concepts (for example, photosensitivity is the quality of photographic film, but we cannot say that photographic film is photosensitivity or that photosensitivity is this is photographic film).

The identity of the concepts of “personality” and “individual” is denied by all leading Soviet psychologists - B. G. Ananyev, A. N. Leontyev, B. F. Lomov, S. L. Rubinstein and others. “Personality is not equal to the individual: this is a special quality , which is acquired by the individual in society, in the totality of relationships, social in nature, in which the individual is involved... Personality is a systemic and therefore “supersensible” quality, although the bearer of this quality is a completely sensual, bodily individual with all his innate and acquired properties » (Leontyev A.N. Selected psychological works, M., 1983, Volume 1., p. 335).

First of all, it is necessary to clarify why personality can be said to be a “supersensible” quality of an individual. It is obvious that the individual has completely sensory (that is, accessible to perception with the help of the senses) properties: physicality, individual characteristics of behavior, speech, facial expressions, etc. How are qualities discovered in a person that cannot be seen in their immediate sensory sense? form?

Just as surplus value is K. Marx showed this with utmost clarity - there is a certain “supersensible” quality that you cannot see in a manufactured object through any microscope, but in which the labor of a worker not paid for by the capitalist is embodied, the personality personifies the system of social relations that make up the sphere of existence of the individual as his systemic (internal) dismembered, complex) quality. They can only be discovered by scientific analysis; they are inaccessible to sensory perception.

To embody a system of social relations means to be their subject. A child involved in relationships with adults initially acts as an object of their activity, but, mastering the composition of the activities that they offer him as leading for his development, for example, learning, he becomes, in turn, the subject of these relationships. Social relations are not something external to their subject; they are a part, a side, an aspect of personality as a social quality of an individual.

K. Marx wrote: “...the essence of man is not an abstraction inherent in an individual. In its reality it is the totality of all social relations." (Marx K., Theses on Feuerbach // Marx K., Engels F. Works - 2nd ed., Volume 42, p. 265). If the generic essence of a person, unlike other living beings, is a set of social relations, then the essence of each specific person, that is, the abstract inherent in an individual as a person, is a set of specific social connections and relationships in which he is included as a subject. They, these connections and relationships, are outside him, that is, in social existence, and therefore impersonal, objective (the slave is completely dependent on the slave owner), and at the same time they are inside, in him as individuals, and therefore subjective (the slave hates slave owner, submits or rebels against him, enters into socially determined connections with him). […]

To characterize a personality, it is necessary to examine the system of social relations in which, as mentioned above, it is included. Personality is clearly closely “under the skin” of the individual, and it goes beyond the boundaries of his physicality into new “spaces.”

What are these “spaces” in which one can discern manifestations of personality, understand and evaluate it?

The first is the “space” of the individual’s psyche (intra-individual space), his inner world: his interests, views, opinions, beliefs, ideals, tastes, inclinations, hobbies. All this forms the direction of his personality, a selective attitude towards the environment. This may include other manifestations of a person’s personality: features of his memory, thinking, fantasy, but such that one way or another resonate in his social life.

The second “space” is the area of ​​interindividual connections (interindividual space). Here, not the individual himself, but the processes in which at least two individuals or a group (collective) are included are considered as manifestations of the personality of each of them. The clues to the “personality structure” turn out to be hidden in the space outside the individual’s organic body, in the system of relationships of one person with another person.

The third “space” for an individual to realize his capabilities as a person is located not only outside his inner world, but also outside the boundaries of actual, momentary (here and now) connections with other people (meta-individual space). By acting, and actively acting, a person causes changes in the inner world of other people. Thus, communication with an intelligent and interesting person influences people’s beliefs, views, feelings, and desires. In other words, this is the “space” of the subject’s ideal representation (personalization) in other people, formed by the summation of the changes that he made to the psyche and consciousness of other people as a result of joint activities and communication with them.

It can be assumed that if we were able to record all the significant changes that a given individual made through his real activities and communication in other individuals, then we would receive the most complete description of him as a person.

An individual can achieve the rank of a historical figure in a certain socio-historical situation only if these changes affect a sufficiently wide range of people, receiving the assessment not only of contemporaries, but also of history, which has the opportunity to accurately weigh these personal contributions, which ultimately turn out to be contributions into public practice.

A personality can be metaphorically interpreted as a source of some kind of radiation that transforms people associated with this personality (radiation, as is known, can be useful and harmful, can heal and cripple, accelerate and slow down development, cause various mutations, etc.).

An individual deprived of personal characteristics can be likened to a neutrino, a hypothetical particle that completely penetrates a dense medium without making any changes in it; “impersonality” is a characteristic of an individual who is indifferent to other people, a person whose presence does not change anything in their lives, does not transform their behavior and thereby deprives him of his personality.

The three “spaces” in which a person finds himself do not exist in isolation, but form a unity. The same personality trait appears differently in each of these three dimensions. […]

So, a new way of interpreting personality is being paved - it acts as the ideal representation of the individual in other people, as his “otherness” in them (as well as in himself as an “other”), as his personalization. The essence of this ideal representation, these “contributions” is in those real semantic transformations, effective changes in the intellectual and emotional sphere of the personality of another person that are produced by the activity of the individual and his participation in joint activities. The “otherness” of an individual in other people is not a static imprint. We are talking about an active process, about a kind of “continuation of oneself in another,” about the most important need of the individual - to find a second life in other people, to make lasting changes in them.

The phenomenon of personalization opens up the opportunity to clarify the problem of personal immortality, which has always worried humanity. If a person’s personality is not reduced to its representation in a bodily subject, but continues in other people, then with the death of an individual the personality does not “completely” die. “No, all of me will not die... as long as at least one person in the sublunary world is alive” (A.S. Pushkin). The individual as the bearer of personality passes away, but, personalized in other people, it continues, giving rise to difficult experiences in them, explained by the tragedy of the gap between the ideal representation of the individual and his material disappearance.

In the words “he lives in us even after death” there is neither mysticism nor pure metaphor - this is a statement of the fact of the destruction of an entire psychological structure while maintaining one of its links. It can be assumed that at a certain stage of social development, personality as a systemic quality of an individual begins to act in the form of a special social value, a kind of model for mastering and implementing in the individual activities of people.”

Petrovsky A., Petrovsky V., “I” in “Others” and “Others” in “Me”, in Reader: Popular Psychology / Comp. V.V. Mironenko, M., “Enlightenment”, 1990, pp. 124-128.

INDIVIDUAL AND PERSONALITY

A person who, thanks to work, emerges from the animal world and develops in society, carries out joint activities with other people and communicates with them, becomes a person, a subject of knowledge and active transformation of the material world, society and himself.

A person is born into the world already a human being. This statement only at first glance seems to be a truth that does not require proof. The fact is that the genes of a human embryo contain natural prerequisites for the development of actually human characteristics and qualities. The configuration of the body of a newborn presupposes the possibility of upright walking, the structure of the brain provides the possibility of developing intelligence, the structure of the hand - the prospect of using tools, etc., and in this way the baby - already a person in terms of the sum of his capabilities - differs from a baby animal. In this way, the fact that the baby belongs to the human race is proven, which is fixed in the concept of an individual (in contrast to a baby animal, which is called an individual immediately after birth and until the end of its life). In the concept “ individual” embodies a person’s tribal affiliation. Individual can be considered both a newborn and an adult at the stage of savagery, and a highly educated resident of a civilized country.

Therefore, when we say of a particular person that he is an individual, we are essentially saying that he is potentially a person. Having been born as an individual, a person gradually acquires a special social quality and becomes a personality. Even in childhood, the individual is included in the historically established system of social relations, which he finds already ready. The further development of a person in society creates such an interweaving of relationships, which forms him as a person, ᴛ.ᴇ. as a real person, not only not like others, but also not like them, acting, thinking, suffering, included in social connections as a member of society, a participant in the historical process.

Personality in psychology, it denotes a systemic (social) quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the degree of representation of social relations in the individual.

So, personality should be understood only in a system of stable interpersonal connections, which are mediated by the content, values, and meaning of joint activity for each of the participants. These interpersonal connections are manifested in specific individual properties and actions of people, forming a special quality of the group activity itself.

The personality of each person is endowed only with its own inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality, constituting the uniqueness of a person, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in temperamental traits, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), in abilities, individual style of activity, etc. There are no two identical people with the same combination of these psychological characteristics - a person’s personality is unique in its individuality.

Just as the concepts of “individual” and “personality” are not identical, personality and individuality, in turn, form unity, but not identity. The ability to add and multiply large numbers very quickly “in the mind”, thoughtfulness, the habit of biting nails and other characteristics of a person act as traits of his individuality, but are not extremely important in the characteristics of his personality, if only because they are not represented in forms of activity and communication that are essential for the group in which the individual possessing these traits is included. If personality traits are not represented in the system of interpersonal relationships, then they turn out to be insignificant for characterizing the individual’s personality and do not receive conditions for development. The individual characteristics of a person remain “mute” until a certain time, until they become necessary in the system of interpersonal relationships, the subject of which will be this person as an individual.

The problem of the relationship between the biological (natural) and social principles in the structure of a person’s personality is one of the most complex and controversial in modern psychology. A prominent place is occupied by theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed under the influence of two factors - biological and social. The idea was put forward that the entire human personality is divided into an “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization. “ Endopsychics“as a substructure of personality expresses the internal mechanism of the human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of a person. “ Exopsyche” is determined by a person’s attitude to the external environment. “Endopsychia” includes such traits as receptivity, characteristics of memory, thinking and imagination, the ability to exert volition, impulsiveness, etc., and “exopsychia” is a person’s system of relationships and his experience, ᴛ.ᴇ. interests, inclinations, ideals, prevailing feelings, formed knowledge, etc.

How should we approach this concept of two factors? Natural organic aspects and traits exist in the structure of the individuality of the human personality as its socially conditioned elements. The natural (anatomical, physiological and other qualities) and the social form a unity and are not mechanically opposed to each other as independent substructures of the personality. So, recognizing the role of the natural, biological, and social in the structure of individuality, it is impossible to distinguish biological substructures in the human personality, in which they already exist in a transformed form.

Returning to the question of understanding the essence of personality, it is extremely important to dwell on the structure of personality when it is perceived as a “supersensible” systemic quality of an individual. Considering personality in the system of subjective relations, three types of subsystems of an individual’s personal existence are distinguished (or three aspects of the interpretation of personality). The first aspect to consider is intra-individual subsystem: personality is interpreted as a property inherent in the subject himself; the personal turns out to be immersed in the internal space of the individual’s existence. Second aspect - interindividual personal subsystem, when the sphere of its definition and existence becomes the “space of interindividual connections.” The third aspect of consideration is meta-individual personal subsystem. Here attention is drawn to the impact that an individual, voluntarily or unwittingly, has on other people. Personality is perceived from a new angle: its most important characteristics, which were tried to be seen in the qualities of an individual, are proposed to be looked for not only in himself, but also in other people. Continuing in other people, with the death of the individual the personality does not completely die. The individual, as the bearer of personality, dies, but, personalized in other people, continues to live. In the words “he lives in us even after death” there is neither mysticism nor pure metaphor, it is a statement of the fact of the ideal representation of the individual after his material disappearance.

Of course, a personality should be characterized only in the unity of all three proposed aspects of consideration: its individuality, representation in the system of interpersonal relationships and, finally, in other people.

If, when deciding why a person becomes more active, we analyze the essence of needs, which express the state of need for something or someone, leading to activity, then in order to determine what the activity will result in, it is extremely important to analyze what determines its direction, where and what this activity is aimed at.

A set of stable motives that guide an individual’s activity and are relatively independent of existing situations is usually called orientation of a person's personality. The main role of personality orientation belongs to conscious motives.

Interest- a motive that promotes orientation in any area, familiarization with new facts, and a more complete and profound reflection of reality. Subjectively - for the individual - interest is revealed in the positive emotional tone that the process of cognition acquires, in the desire to become more deeply acquainted with the object, to learn even more about it, to understand it.

However, interests act as a constant incentive mechanism for cognition.

Interests are an important aspect of motivation for an individual’s activity, but not the only one. An essential motive for behavior is beliefs.

Beliefs- this is a system of individual motives that encourages her to act in accordance with her views, principles, and worldview. Contents of needs, acting in the form of beliefs, is knowledge about the surrounding world of nature and society, their certain understanding. When this knowledge forms an orderly and internally organized system of views (philosophical, aesthetic, ethical, natural science, etc.), they can be considered as a worldview.

The presence of beliefs covering a wide range of issues in the field of literature, art, social life, and industrial activity indicates a high level of activity of a person’s personality.

Interacting and communicating with people, a person distinguishes himself from the environment, feels himself to be the subject of his physical and mental states, actions and processes, acts for himself as “I”, opposed to “others” and at the same time inextricably linked with him.

The experience of having a “I” is the result of a long process of personality development that begins in infancy and which is referred to as the “discovery of the “I.” A one-year-old child begins to realize the differences between the sensations of his own body and those sensations that are caused by objects located outside. Then, at the age of 2-3 years, the child separates the process that gives him pleasure and the result of his own actions with objects from the objective actions of adults, presenting the latter with demands: “I myself!” For the first time, he begins to realize himself as the subject of his own actions and deeds (a personal pronoun appears in the child’s speech), not only distinguishing himself from the environment, but also opposing himself to everyone else (“This is mine, this is not yours!”).

It is known that in adolescence and adolescence, the desire for self-perception, to understand one’s place in life and oneself as a subject of relationships with others intensifies. Associated with this is the formation of self-awareness. Senior schoolchildren develop an image of their own “I”. The image of “I” is a relatively stable, not always conscious, experienced as a unique system of an individual’s ideas about himself, on the basis of which he builds his interaction with others. The image of “I” thereby fits into the structure of the personality. It acts as an attitude towards oneself. Like any attitude, the image of “I” includes three components.

First of all, cognitive component: idea of ​​one’s abilities, appearance, social significance, etc.

Secondly, emotional-evaluative component: self-respect, self-criticism, selfishness, self-deprecation, etc.

Third - behavioral(strong-willed): the desire to be understood, to win sympathy, to increase one’s status, or the desire to remain unnoticed, to evade evaluation and criticism, to hide one’s shortcomings, etc.

Image of “I”- stable, not always realized, experienced as a unique system of ideas of an individual about himself, on the basis of which he builds his interaction with others.

The image of “I” is both a prerequisite and a consequence of social interaction. In fact, psychologists record in a person not just one image of his “I”, but many successive “I-images”, alternately coming to the forefront of self-awareness and then losing their meaning in a given situation of social interaction. “I-image” is not a static, but a dynamic formation of an individual’s personality.

The “I-image” can be experienced as an idea of ​​oneself at the moment of the experience itself, usually referred to in psychology as the “real Self,” but it would probably be more correct to call it the momentary or “current Self” of the subject.

The “I-image” is at the same time the “ideal I” of the subject - what he should, in his opinion, become in order to meet the internal criteria of success.

Let us indicate another variant of the emergence of the “I-image” - the “fantastic I” - what the subject would like to become, if it turned out to be possible for him, how he would like to see himself. The construction of one’s fantastic “I” is characteristic not only of young men, but also of adults. When assessing the motivating significance of this “I-image,” it is important to know whether the individual’s objective understanding of his position and place in life has been replaced by his “fantastic self.” The predominance in the personality structure of fantastic ideas about oneself, not accompanied by actions that would contribute to the realization of the desired, disorganizes the activity and self-awareness of a person and in the end can severely traumatize him due to the obvious discrepancy between the desired and the actual.

The degree of adequacy of the “I-image” is clarified by studying one of its most important aspects—personal self-esteem.

Self-esteem- a person’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people. This is the most significant and most studied aspect of a person’s self-awareness in psychology. With the help of self-esteem, the behavior of an individual is regulated.

How does a person carry out self-esteem? K. Marx has a fair idea: a person first looks, as in a mirror, into another person. Only by treating the man Paul as one of his own kind does the man Peter begin to treat himself as a man. In other words, by learning the qualities of another person, a person receives the necessary information that allows him to develop his own assessment. In other words, a person is oriented toward a certain reference group (real or ideal), whose ideals are its ideals, interests are its interests, etc. d. In the process of communication, she constantly compares herself with the standard and, based on the results of the check, turns out to be satisfied with herself or dissatisfied. Too high or too low self-esteem can become an internal source of personality conflicts. Of course, this conflict can manifest itself in different ways.

Inflated self-esteem leads to the fact that a person tends to overestimate himself in situations that do not provide a reason for this. As a result, he often encounters opposition from others who reject his claims, becomes embittered, displays suspicion, suspiciousness and deliberate arrogance, aggression, and in the end may lose the necessary interpersonal contacts and become withdrawn.

Excessively low self-esteem may indicate the development of an inferiority complex, persistent self-doubt, refusal of initiative, indifference, self-blame and anxiety.

In order to understand a person, it is extremely important to clearly imagine the action of unconsciously developing forms of personality control of their behavior, to pay attention to the entire system of assessments with which a person characterizes himself and others, to see the dynamics of changes in these assessments.

INDIVIDUAL AND PERSONALITY - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "INDIVIDUALS AND PERSONALITY" 2017, 2018.

Systemic qualities of a person

1. The concept and types of systemic qualities of a person;

2. Man as a biological individual;

3. Man as a person;

4. Individuality of a person.

The concept of man as a system was introduced into scientific circulation by Ananyev. Systemic qualities are qualities acquired by a person when included in a certain system and expressing his place and role in this system. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish such systemic qualities as a person as a biological individual (a person as a natural being), a person as a social individual (a person as a social being), a person as a personality (a person as a cultural subject).

Mechanisms of mental regulation consistently develop in ontogenesis: infancy and early childhood - mechanisms characteristic of a biological individual dominate. The formation of an individual begins from the moment of fertilization. Preschool and primary school age is a period of active development of the social individual. The formation of a social individual begins from the moment of birth. Personality formation occurs from about three years of age.

The concept of individual denotes a person’s belonging to a certain biological species and genus. The main form of human development as a biological individual is the maturation of biological structures.

Scheme of individual properties

(according to B.G. Ananyev)

Individual properties

Gender Age Primary Secondary

I. Neurodynamic properties that determine the strength (energy) and time parameters of the flow of n/processes (excitation and inhibition) in the cerebral cortex.

II. Psychodynamic - integrally expressed in the type of temperament and are formed during life on the basis of I properties. They determine the power and time parameters of the course of mental processes and behavior. Temperament is a manifestation of neurodynamic properties at the level of an individual’s mental reflection and behavior.

III. Bilateral properties are characteristics of the localization of psychophysiological mechanisms and functions in the cerebral hemispheres.

IV. Functional asymmetry of mental functions is the uneven distribution of mental functions between different hemispheres.

V. Constitutional properties are the biochemical features of metabolism both in the body of a biological individual in general and in his n/s in particular: a) constitution, b) somatotype - arises on the basis of the constitution under the influence of external factors.

Functions of individual properties: 1. act as a factor in physical and mental development; 2. form a psychophysiological basis for human activity; 3. determine the dynamic (reaction rate, speed, rhythm) and energy (activity potential) human resources.

Personality is a systemic, supersensible quality of a person, acquired by him and manifested by him in joint activities and communication with other people.

Supersensible means that we cannot cognize the personality at the sensory-perceptual level. Personality is presented in the space of interpersonal relationships, in which it is formed and manifested. The unit of analysis is the action.

Personality structure. Social status is a person’s place in the structure of social relations. Social role is a behavioral distribution of status. Social position is a person’s conscious and unconscious attitude towards his own roles. Value orientations are a set of human values. Orientation (core of personality) – a set of dominant motives of behavior and activity: egocentric, business, interpersonal. The dominant emotional background of life. The relationship between behavior and will. Level of development of self-awareness.

We can talk about the so-called global personality characteristics: Personality strength – the ability of an individual to influence other people. It consists of personification of personality (representation in other people), stability (principledness), flexibility - the ability to change.

Individuality is uniqueness, originality, dissimilarity.

In a broad sense, the concept of individuality can be applied to all levels of human analysis. Individual biological characteristics, an individual set of social behaviors, roles and statuses, abilities to perform activities, etc.

In the narrow sense of the word, this concept should be applied only to an individual who has a unique set of motives, values, ideals, attitudes, individual style of activity, etc. An individual style of activity is a set of ways and techniques of performing an activity that are optimal for a given subject.

A person is already born into the world as a human being. Here, the genetic predetermination of the emergence of natural prerequisites for the development of actually human characteristics and qualities is affirmed (every baby is a person in terms of the sum of his capabilities). The fact that the baby belongs to the human race is affirmed, which is fixed in the concept of an individual (individual - animal). The concept of individual includes the gender identity of a person. (Individual - scientist, idiot, savage, civilized person).

Thus, to say about a specific person that he is an individual is to say very few, only that, that he is potentially human. Being born as an individual, a person acquires a social quality and becomes a personality. Even in childhood, a person is included in the system of social relations that shape him as a person. Personality in psychology denotes a systemic social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the level and quality of representation of social relations in the individual.

Individuality- originality, a feature of a person, manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, style of activity, abilities. Personality is individual, but this does not mean that to say about a person that he is an individual means to say that he is a personality. These terms are interrelated, but do not mean the same thing.

Human- a biosocial being with articulate speech, consciousness, higher mental functions, capable of creating tools and using them in the process of social labor.

These human abilities and properties are not transmitted to people in the order of biological heredity, but are formed in them during their lifetime, in the process of assimilating the culture created by previous generations. And only development among one’s own kind, in society, develops as a person. A person acquires a social quality.

What will we do with the received material:

If this material was useful to you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

All topics in this section:

Mood is a general emotional state that colors all human behavior over a significant period of time.
Usually the mood is characterized by unaccountability and weak expression; a person does not notice them. But, sometimes, the mood acquires significant intensity and leaves its mark on the mind.

To create an optimal emotional state you need: 1. Correct assessment of the significance of the event. 2. Sufficient awareness (various) on this issue

Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles
Will, as a characteristic of consciousness and activity, arose along with the emergence of society and labor activity. Will is an important component of the human psyche, inextricably linked with cognition

The complex inner world of man
The dynamics of the will depending on the complexity of the external world and the complexity of the internal world of a person: 1 - Will is not required (a person’s desires are simple, unambiguous, any desire is fulfilled

When they want to characterize a person, they often talk about him either as a person, or as an individual, or as an individual. In psychology, these concepts are different.

Individual– a person individually (about an animal – an individual). The concept of an individual characterizes the physical existence of a person when he acts in his natural, biological characteristics as a human organism. The concept of an individual contains an indication of a person’s similarity to all other people, of his commonality with the human race.

Individuality– a person as a unique, original personality who realizes himself in creative activity. This is the isolation of the individual from the community, the formalization of his uniqueness and originality. Individuality presupposes the certainty of one’s own position in life. If individuality fixes isolation from social relations, then personality, on the contrary, fixes socially significant qualities of a person, inclusion in social relations. Individuality arises when a person meets himself, personality - when a person meets other people.

A person who develops in society, who enters into communication with other people through language, becomes a person. The main thing in characterizing a person is his social essence. Based on this, a person can be considered as a subject and object of social relations.

Personality in psychology, it denotes a systemic (social) quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the degree of representation of social relations in the individual.

Psychologists argue whether every person is an individual. There are two points of view:

1) Each person is a personality, but a personality can have a socially significant character, or it can be asocial (criminal). A child is not yet a person, but he will become a person in the future.

2) According to A.N. Leontyev, personality is born twice: the first time when a three-year-old child puts up the slogan: “I myself”; the second time (or maybe not born!), when a conscious personality emerges with his own beliefs and worldview (at the age of 16).

2. Personality structure. Biological and social in the structure of personality. Let's consider several options for personality structure.

The personality structure according to Freud includes three components:

· Id (It) – primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of personality; functions in the unconscious, obeying the pleasure principle.

· Ego (I) – consciousness, a component of the mental apparatus responsible for making decisions.

· Superego (Superego) – moral control, norms of society.

The function of the Ego is to eliminate the contradictions between the Id and the SuperEgo: behavior should be structured in such a way that both pleasure is received and the norms of society are respected.

The personality structure (according to A.V. Petrovsky) includes the following components.

1. The intra-individual subsystem is the systemic organization of its individuality, represented in the structure of a person’s temperament, character, and abilities.

However, personality cannot be studied outside the system of its social relations and interrelations.

2. Interindividual subsystem - a person in the system of his relationships with other people (outside the individual’s organic body).

3. Meta-individual subsystem - “contributions” of the individual to other people, which the subject carries out through his activities (continuation of himself in others). The process and result of imprinting a subject in other people, its ideal representation and the continuation of “contributions” in them is called personalization. An individual passes away, but personalized in other people he continues to live (deeds, students, objects of material culture). When the entire structure of the personality is destroyed, this link is preserved.

So, this personality structure includes three components: the individuality of the individual, his representation in the system of interpersonal relationships and in other people.

Personality structure according to K.K. Platonov includes the following components (Table 5)

Dynamic structure of personality according to K.K. Platonov

The problem of the relationship between the biological and the social is one of the most complex in modern psychology.

Biological– what is given to a person by nature (anatomical structure of the body, characteristics of GNI, temperament, inclinations). Social- what characterizes a person; this is lifetime education (worldview, tastes, character, etc.).

In psychology, there are theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed under the influence of two factors, biological and social - “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization.

Endopsychics as a substructure of personality expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, as if the internal mechanism of the human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of a person. It includes such traits as sensitivity, characteristics of memory, thinking, imagination, ability to exert volition, etc.

Exopsyche is determined by a person’s relationship to the external environment and includes a person’s system of relationships and his experience, i.e. interests, ideals, inclinations, worldview, prevailing feelings, knowledge, etc.

The endopsyche has a natural basis, the exopsyche is determined by the social factor.

How to treat this two-factor theory? A person is born as a biological being. In this case, the individual is born biologically, much less socially immature; the maturation and development of his body from the very beginning takes place in social conditions. The development of an individual does not begin in a vacuum; it is not tabula raza, a person is born with a certain set of biological properties and physiological mechanisms, which are a prerequisite for the further development of the individual (“No gardener can grow an apple on an oak tree” - V.G. Belinsky). A biological determinant operates throughout an individual’s life (since development occurs throughout life), but its role is different in different periods. However, the biological, entering a person’s personality, becomes social (brain pathology Þ individual biological conditioned natural traits Þ become personal traits in society).

Natural organic traits exist in the personality structure as its socially determined elements. The natural and the social form a unity and cannot be mechanically opposed to each other as independent substructures of personality.

Question 21 Self-awareness, “I am a concept”, the image of “I”. Self-esteem and level of aspirations. Affect of inadequacy. Personality characteristics (psychological protection of the individual, life plan, compensatory mechanisms, intrapersonal conflict)

1. Self-awareness, “I am a concept”, the image of “I”. A person’s interest in his “I” has long been a subject of special attention. Interacting and communicating with other people, a person feels himself to be the subject of his physical and mental states, actions and processes, acts for himself as an “I”, opposed to “others” and inextricably linked with them.

Self-awareness is a set of mental processes through which an individual recognizes himself as a subject of activity, and his ideas about himself are formed into a certain image of “I”.

The image of "I" includes 3 components:

1) cognitive (cognitive) – knowledge of oneself;

2) emotional (assessment of one’s qualities);

3) behavioral (practical attitude towards oneself).

The image of “I” is a dynamic formation and includes many “I” images that replace each other depending on the situation: ~ real “I” ~ ideal “I” ~ fantastic “I”, etc.

"I-concept"- this is the totality of all an individual’s ideas about himself, associated with an assessment. “I-concept” performs 3 main functions.

1) Contributes to the achievement of internal consistency of the individual. A person strives to achieve maximum internal consistency. Representations, ideas, feelings that contradict his own perceptions, ideas, feelings lead to deharmonization of the personality. If a new experience does not fit into existing ideas, the “I-concept” rejects it and acts as a protective screen (“This cannot be, because this can never be”).

2) Determines the interpretation of the acquired experience. Passing through the “I-concept” filter, information is interpreted and given a meaning that corresponds to a person’s ideas about himself.

3) Determines a person’s expectations about himself, i.e. something that needs to happen (“I am a good student, therefore I will pass the psychology exam”). The self-concept guides behavior.

Self-awareness constantly compares actual behavior with the “I-concept” (discrepancy between them leads to suffering).

Self-concept can be positive or negative. A positive self-concept means a positive attitude towards oneself, self-respect, self-acceptance, and a sense of self-worth.

A negative “I-concept” presupposes a negative attitude towards oneself, self-rejection, a feeling of one’s own inferiority; a person cannot achieve agreement between the “I-concept” and behavior.

A person’s ideas about himself, as a rule, seem convincing to him, although they may be subjective. Even objective indicators (height, age) can have different meanings for different people, due to the structure of their “I-concept” (for example, is 40 years the time of blossoming or aging?)

A too rigid structure of the “I-concept” is not a strength of character, but a source of painful inconsistencies. Too weak leads to spinelessness, unsuitability for long and strenuous efforts to achieve the goal.

The image of “I” is one of the most important social attitudes for life. All people feel the need for a positive self-image; a negative attitude towards oneself is always painful.

2. Self-esteem and level of aspirations. Affect of inadequacy. The degree of adequacy of the image of “I” is clarified by studying self-esteem personalities, i.e. a person’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people.

An individual evaluates himself in two ways:

1) by comparing the level of their aspirations with the actual results of their activities;

2) by comparing yourself with other people.

Self-esteem is always subjective. It is not constant, changing depending on circumstances.

Assimilation of new grades can change the meaning of those previously acquired (a student considers himself a good student, but later becomes convinced that good academic performance does not bring happiness in life; self-esteem falls).

Self-esteem can be adequate or inflated (in this case, the person is characterized by arrogance, suspicion, and aggression); underestimated (uncertainty, indifference, self-blame, anxiety).

Self-esteem is closely related to the level of aspirations. Level of aspiration- this is the desired level of self-esteem of an individual, manifested in the degree of difficulty of the goal that the individual sets for himself. The level of individual aspirations is set somewhere between too easy and too difficult tasks so as to maintain self-esteem at the proper height.

Usually, with failures, the level of aspirations and self-esteem decreases. However, it may be that, despite failures, this does not happen and the person does not make any effort to achieve success, to raise his capabilities to the level of aspirations. Reasons for this:

1) some of the child’s abilities, sufficient for success in some area, but not sufficient for great achievements;

2) overestimation, long experience of undeserved praise, consciousness of one’s exclusivity;

3) a very strong need for self-affirmation.

There is a feeling of resentment and confidence in the injustice of others, a hostile and suspicious attitude towards everyone, and aggressiveness. This condition is called affect of inadequacy.

The affect of inadequacy arises for the sake of preserving one’s own attitude towards oneself at the cost of violating adequate relationships with the surrounding reality. Performs a protective function: it satisfies the need for high self-esteem, but is a serious obstacle to the formation of personality.

Prevention of the affect of inadequacy:

1) formation of adequate self-esteem;

2) formation of deep and sustainable interests.

A person’s self-awareness, using the mechanism of self-esteem, sensitively registers the relationship between one’s own aspirations and real achievements. A specific component of the “I” image – self-respect- characterized by the relationship between her actual achievements and what a person claims to achieve.

Self-esteem = success/aspiration

To maintain self-respect you need:

Achieve success (it's hard) or

Reduce the level of claims.

3. Personality characteristics (psychological protection of the individual, life plan, compensatory mechanisms, intrapersonal conflict).

Psychological defense mechanisms begin to operate when achieving a goal in a normal way is impossible (or the person thinks so).

Main types of psychological defense.

1. crowding out– a way to get rid of internal conflict by actively turning off an unacceptable motive or unpleasant information from consciousness. Injured pride, hurt pride and resentment can give rise to the proclamation of false motives for one’s actions in order to hide them not only from others, but also from oneself. True motives are replaced by others that do not cause shame or remorse and are acceptable from the point of view of the social environment. A person can “honestly” forget about an ugly act and force unwanted information out of memory. What is most quickly forgotten by a person is not the bad things that people have done to him, but the bad things that they have done to themselves and others. Ingratitude is associated with repression; envy and components of one’s own inferiority complexes are repressed with enormous force.

2. Reactive formation (inversion)– transformation in the consciousness of the emotional attitude towards an object to the exact opposite.

3. Regression– a return to more primitive forms of behavior and thinking.

4. Projection– unconscious transference to another person, attribution of feelings, desires, inclinations that a person does not want to admit to himself, understanding their social unacceptability. When a person has been aggressive towards someone, he often reduces the attractive qualities of the victim. A stingy person does not consider himself this way, but attributes this quality to other people.

5. Identification- unconscious transference to oneself of feelings and qualities inherent in another person, and inaccessible, but desirable for oneself. The boy unconsciously tries to be like his father and thereby earn his love. In a broad sense, identification is the unconscious adherence to ideals and models in order to overcome one’s own weakness and sense of inferiority.

6. Rationalization- a pseudo-reasonable explanation by a person of his desires, actions, in reality caused by reasons, the recognition of which would threaten the loss of self-esteem. Having not received what he passionately desired, a person convinces himself that “I didn’t really want it.” A person who has committed an unprincipled act refers to “general opinion.”

7. Insulation, or alienation– isolation within the consciousness of factors traumatic to a person. Unpleasant emotions are blocked by consciousness. This type of defense resembles alienation syndrome, which is characterized by a feeling of loss of emotional connection with other people, previously significant events or one’s own experiences, although their reality is recognized.

8). Sublimation– the process of transformation of sexual energy into socially acceptable forms of activity (creativity, social contacts).

The influence of psychological defense preserves a person’s inner comfort, creating the ground for self-justification. A person who is aware of his shortcomings takes the path of overcoming them and can change his actions. If information about the discrepancy between desired behavior and actual actions is not allowed into consciousness, then the psychological defense mechanism is activated and the conflict is not overcome, i.e. a person cannot take the path of self-improvement.

F. Nietzsche wrote about psychological defense: “A person is well protected from himself, from reconnaissance and siege from himself: he usually can only recognize his external fortifications. The fortress itself is inaccessible to him and even invisible - unless friends and enemies play the role of traitors and lead him into it in secret ways.”

Life plan as a characteristic of a person arises as a result of generalization and enlargement of the goals that a person sets for himself, the subordination of his motives, and the formation of a stable core of value orientations. At the same time, concretization and differentiation of goals occurs. A life plan is a phenomenon of both a social and ethical order.

The next personality characteristic is compensatory mechanisms. According to the teachings of A. Adler, an individual, due to defects in the development of his bodily organs, experiences a “feeling of inferiority.” Children experience feelings of inferiority due to their physical size and lack of strength and capabilities. Strong feelings of inferiority (or “inferiority complex”) can make positive growth and development difficult. However, a moderate feeling of inferiority motivates a child to grow, develop, improve and excel.

According to Adler, certain childhood situations can give rise to isolation and psychological problems: 1) organic inferiority, frequent illnesses; 2) spoiledness, when the child lacks confidence because others have always done everything for him; 3) rejection - a situation in family education when a child does not feel love and cooperation in the home, so it is extremely difficult for him to develop these qualities (such children most often become cold and cruel). To help a person compensate for an obvious or disguised inferiority complex, it is important: 1) to understand the person’s specific lifestyle (for this, Adler asked the person to tell the earliest memories or events of his childhood); 2) help a person understand himself; 3) strengthen social interest.

Another personality characteristic is intrapersonal conflict– as a rule, it is generated by oppositely directed aspirations of a person (for example, the desire to immediately satisfy one’s physiological needs and the desire to look decent in the eyes of other people). Often intrapersonal conflict is caused by the need to make a choice. K. Levin proposed the following classification of intrapersonal conflicts: 1) a person must choose from two options that are positive for him; 2) the personality is between the positive and negative options; 3) choice “of two evils”.

Question 22. Motivational-need sphere of personality. Directionality. Personal dispositions: needs, goals, attitudes. Value orientations of the individual.

1. Motivational-need sphere of personality. Directionality. There are two functionally interconnected sides in human behavior: incentive and regulatory. Inducement provides activation and direction of behavior, and regulation is responsible for how it develops in a specific situation from beginning to end. Regulation of behavior is ensured by mental processes, phenomena and states: thinking, attention, abilities, temperament, character, will, emotions, etc. Stimulation (motivation) of behavior is associated with the concept of motive and motivation.

Motivation can be defined as a set of reasons of a psychological nature that explain human behavior, its beginning, direction and activity (searching for answers to the questions: why? why? for what?).

Any form of behavior can be explained by both internal and external reasons (i.e., the psychological properties of a person or the external conditions and circumstances of his activity). In the first case, they talk about motives, needs, goals, intentions, desires, interests, etc.; in the second - about the incentives emanating from the current situation. Psychological factors are called personal dispositions(dispositional motivation), external stimuli determine situational motivation.

Dispositional and situational motivations are not independent. Dispositions can be updated under the influence of a certain situation, and the activation of certain dispositions leads to a change in the subject’s perception of a given situation. Almost any human action is determined situationally and dispositionally. A person's actual behavior is the result of the interaction of his dispositions on a situation, and not simply a response to external stimuli. The subject of the action and the situation mutually influence each other, the result is observed behavior (for example, a person answers the same questions differently in different situations). Motivation is a process of continuous choice and decision-making by weighing behavioral alternatives, which largely depends on the orientation of the individual.

Focus can be defined as a stable aspiration, orientation of thoughts, feelings, desires, actions in a person, which is a consequence of the dominance of certain (main, leading) motivations. We can say that direction is a system of needs, interests, beliefs, and value orientations of a person that give his life meaning and direction. This is the highest level of personality, which is most socially conditioned and most fully reflects the ideology of the community in which the person is included.

2. Personal dispositions: needs, goals, attitudes. Value orientations of the individual. One of the most important dispositions of the motivational sphere is motive. Under motive is understood as: 1) a material or ideal object that directs an activity or action to itself in order to satisfy certain needs of the subject; 2) the mental image of a given object. Motives can be stable and situational, conscious and unconscious. The same behavior can be driven by different motives. Awareness and sustainable motives play a leading role.

The entire set of motives of an individual, which is formed during his life, is called motivational sphere of the individual. The motivational sphere of a person is characterized by: breadth (diversity of motives); flexibility (to assimilate a motivational drive of a lower level, more diverse incentives of a lower level can be used, i.e., a person can use a variety of means to satisfy the same motive); hierarchy (characteristic of the structure of the motivational sphere).

To understand a person’s motivational sphere and its development, it is necessary to consider the individual’s relationships with other people. The formation of the motivational sphere is influenced by the life of society: ideology, politics, ethics, public institutions.

In general, this sphere is dynamic, but some motives are relatively stable and form, as it were, the core of this sphere (the direction of the personality is manifested in them).

Let us list the most important motives for activity and behavior:

a) attraction is the most primitive biological form of orientation;

b) desire - a conscious need and desire for something consciously;

c) desire - arises when a volitional component is included in the structure of desire;

d) interest – a cognitive form of focus on objects;

e) when a volitional component is included in interest, it becomes an inclination;

f) ideal - the objective goal of inclination, concretized in an image or representation;

g) worldview - a system of philosophical, ethical, aesthetic and other views on the world around us;

h) belief - a system of motives of an individual that encourages her to act in accordance with her views, ideals, and worldview.

A motive directs activity to satisfy a specific need. Need is the most important of all possible dispositions.

Need- the state of need of a person or animal in certain conditions that they lack for normal existence and development. A need is always associated with a person’s feeling of dissatisfaction associated with a deficiency of what the body (person) requires. The need activates the search for what is required and maintains the activity of the body until the state of need is completely satisfied.

Human needs are interconnected with each other and with other motivations. The dominant need at a given time can suppress all others and determine the main direction of activity (a hungry student). The main characteristics of human needs are strength, frequency of occurrence and method of satisfaction. An additional characteristic is the substantive content of the need, i.e. what objects of material and spiritual culture can contribute to its satisfaction. A characteristic feature of human needs is their insatiability. Once satisfied, the need arises again and again, forcing a person to create more and more new objects of material and spiritual culture. Spiritual needs play a special role in the development of personality. Each person has a unique combination of needs. A perceived need becomes a motive for behavior.

All living beings have needs, but humans have the most diverse needs. A. Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs, presenting them in the form of a “pyramid” (Table 6)

“Pyramid” of needs by A. Maslow.

Maslow identified the following principles of human motivation.

· Motives have a hierarchical structure.

· The higher the level of motive, the less vital the corresponding needs are, the longer their implementation can be delayed.

· Until the lower needs are satisfied, the higher ones remain relatively irrelevant.

· As needs increase, readiness for greater activity increases. The opportunity to satisfy higher needs is a greater stimulus for activity than satisfying lower ones.

Self-actualization is not the final state of human perfection. Every person always has talents for further development. Maslow called a person who has reached level five a “psychologically healthy person.”

Second in motivational significance (after need) is the concept of goal. Target- a directly cognizable result to which an action is currently directed, associated with an activity that satisfies an actualized need. The goal is perceived by a person as the immediate and immediate expected result of his activity. It is the main object of attention, occupies the volume of short-term and operative memory, the thought process unfolding at the moment and most of the emotional experiences are associated with it.

An important place in the structure of focus is occupied by value orientations– personal formations that characterize the attitude towards the goals of life, as well as the means of achieving these goals. Value orientations express an individual’s preferences regarding certain human values ​​(well-being, health, cognition, creativity, etc.). The nature of goals and value orientations determines the nature of a person’s life activity as a whole.

Question 23. Communication concept. Types and means of communication. Structure of communication. Communication as a communicative process. Interactive and perceptual aspects of communication.

1. The concept of communication. Types and means of communication. Communication structureCommunication- a complex multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy and the perception and understanding of another person.

Thus, three sides can be distinguished in communication:

· communication (exchange of information),

interaction (organization of interaction),

· social perception (partners’ perception and knowledge of each other).

In communication, content, purpose and means are distinguished.

Communication means- methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information (through the senses, tactile contact, sign contacts).

Types of communication:

Direct (using natural human organs);

Indirect (using special means and tools);

Indirect (through intermediaries);

Interpersonal;

Role-playing (participants are carriers of certain roles);

Verbal;

Nonverbal.

2. Communication as a communicative process. When they talk about communication in the narrow sense of the word, they mean that people communicate in the course of joint activities with their ideas, ideas, moods, feelings, and attitudes. However, human communication is not limited to the transfer of information: information in human communication is not only transmitted, but also is being formed, TBC, develops.

Firstly, communication cannot be understood only as the sending of information to some transmitting system and its reception by another system, since, unlike the simple movement of information, we are dealing with the relationship of two active individuals, and their mutual informing presupposes the establishment of joint activities. When sending information to another participant, it is necessary to focus on him, that is, analyze his motives, goals, attitudes, and contact him. Schematically: S=S (communication is an intersubjective process). It must also be assumed that in response to the information sent, new information will be received coming from the other partner.

In the communication process, there is not just the movement of information, but also the active exchange of it. The significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication: after all, people not only exchange knowledge, but also strive to develop a common meaning. This is possible only if the information is not just accepted, but also understood, comprehended, not just information, but a joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communication process, communication, activity and cognition are presented in unity.

Secondly, the exchange of information involves influencing the behavior of the partner. The effectiveness of communication is measured by the extent to which this impact is achieved. When exchanging information, the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in communication changes.

Thirdly, communicative influence is possible only when the person sending the information ( communicator), and the person receiving it ( recipient) have a single or similar codification system (everyone must speak the same language). People do not always understand the meaning of the same words in the same way. The exchange of information is possible only when the signs and, most importantly, the meanings assigned to them are known to all participants in the communication process (then they will be able to understand each other).

Thesaurus– a common system of meanings understood by all members of the group. The reason for different understanding of the same words may be the social, political, and age characteristics of people. “A thought is never equal to the direct meaning of words” (L.S. Vygotsky). If what a person intended for a statement is taken as 100%, then only 90% is put into verbal forms (sentences), and only 80% is expressed. Of what was intended, 70% is heard, only 60% is understood, and 10-24% remains in memory.

Communicators also need the same understanding of the communication situation (this is only possible if communication is included in some general system of activity). For example, a husband greeted at the door by his wife’s words: “I bought some light bulbs today,” should not be limited to their literal interpretation: he should understand that he needs to go to the kitchen and change the light bulb.

Fourthly, in the context of human communication, specific communication barriers may arise:

I. Barriers to understanding:

2) semantic (caused by differences in the meanings of the participants in communication)

3) stylistic (mismatch of communication styles)

4) logical (the logic of the communicator is either complex, incorrect, or contradicts the inherent manner of proof of the recipient)

II. Barriers of socio-cultural differences.

III. Attitude barrier (hostility, distrust of the communicator extends to the information transmitted by him).

The transmission of any information is possible only through sign systems. Verbal communication uses human speech as a sign system. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when transmitting information through speech, only the style of the message is lost.

Speech performs two functions:

1) communicative (means of communication),

2) significative (form of existence of thought).

With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator, in the process of speaking, encodes his idea using words, and the recipient, in the process of listening, decodes this information. Disclosure of the meaning of a message is unthinkable outside the situation of joint activity. The accuracy of understanding can become obvious to the communicator only when the recipient himself turns into a communicator and, through his statement, makes it known how he revealed the meaning of the received information. The success of verbal communication in the case of dialogue is determined by the extent to which the partners provide the thematic focus of the information, as well as its two-way nature.

How to increase the effect of speech influence?

A set of special measures aimed at increasing the effectiveness of speech influence is called "persuasive communication"

Here are some examples of persuasive communication techniques. The speaker must have the ability to attract the attention of the listener if he resists accepting information, to attract him in some way, to confirm his authority, and to improve the manner of presenting the material. An important factor influencing the audience is the interaction of information and audience attitudes.

There are 3 possible communicator positions:

Open – the communicator openly declares himself a supporter of the stated point of view, provides facts to support it

©2015-2019 site
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Page creation date: 2016-04-26