Spheres of human activity. What is production

The science- a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.

The signs of scientific knowledge are: consistency, verifiability, universality, falsifiability.

Scientific knowledge consists of scientific fact and scientific theory.

Scientific fact – This is knowledge, the reliability of which has been proven, and scientific theory- a system of knowledge about a certain area.

A scientific theory is constructed to fit the available empirical data about such observable phenomena, and is put forward as a principle or body of principles in order to explain a class of these phenomena.

It is typical for natural sciences study of exclusively typical, universal processes, strict objectivity, expression of laws in mathematical formulas and quantitative relationships.

Humanitarian sciences(philosophy, jurisprudence, history, etc.) social relations are chosen as the object of knowledge.

Characteristic of the humanities individual assessment of phenomena.

As a part of culture, natural science cannot replace its other phenomena, such as art, religion, myth, philosophy, ideology, politics.

Differences between natural science and other forms of worldview.

Humanitarian approach.

Along with the mathematization and idealization of science, its technocratization . The triumph of mechanics in the 17th–19th centuries led to the fact that it began to be viewed as an ideal, an example of scientific knowledge. The noise of a machine can be heard in everything: man - machine (La Mettrie), society - socio-technical system; Even gravity is fraught with gears.

If at first mechanics acted as the standard, then from the beginning of the New Age - the whole complex of physical knowledge. The orientation towards the physical ideal in chemistry was clearly expressed, for example, by P. Berthelot, in biology - by M. Schleiden. G. Helmholtz argued that the “ultimate goal” of all natural science is to “dissolve in mechanics.” Attempts to build “social mechanics”, “social physics”, etc. were numerous. Positivism arose, a direction that denies the value of non-empirical knowledge.

The physical ideal of scientific knowledge is highly heuristic, but it is also true that the implementation of this ideal often hinders the development of other sciences - mathematics, biologists, and humanities.

The understanding has come that natural science is far from issues of morality. If life is just a complex combination of random chemical reactions, and there is no meaningful hierarchy of living systems, then what is the point of following moral boundaries? Nature belongs to man and can be exploited. Even for antiquity, interfering in the affairs of nature was an impossible thing. The natural science revolution occurred when it was believed that there was no difference between natural processes and processes that we have engineered. Nature, therefore, must be tortured (F. Bacon). The ancients believed that it was impossible to torture her, that it was unacceptable to interfere with her processes. The value of scientific knowledge in antiquity was esoteric, it was called the Good. The value of scientific knowledge in modern times is exoteric; fortunately, it helps to transform a person’s external environment.

We talked about a practical method of obtaining knowledge, which is based on experiment, observation, and measurement. Rational (theoretical) method obtaining knowledge was developed in the works of Descartes (1596-1650), Laplace (1749-1827). It is based on a system of postulates, axioms, intuition, and the use of mathematical apparatus. Theoretical methods are analysis, synthesis, classification.

The non-classical ideal of science

Galileo identified two levels in experience: appearance and essence. Thus, the most important principle was established in natural science: the world is not as we directly observe it. Through experimentation, it is necessary to look for the true essence of things, hidden behind their external appearance (as if other senses were used in the experiment). However, the further we delve into secondary semiotic reality, the further we are from the subject. Galileo tells us that if a body is left to itself, it can move endlessly. Where can we see such a body?

Today, therefore, there is some return to Aristotelian physics with its understanding of the objectivity of matter. Aristotle's physics is more consistent with our experience, unlike, say, Galileo's physics. Throughout the history of modern science, people have been constantly encouraged by the latest discoveries about the possibility of avoiding the death of the physical body, about time dilation. But, in reality, in our human experience, everything that is born always dies sooner or later, and time cannot be sped up or turned back. What changes have occurred in science? The most noticeable signs of non-classical science are its ecologization, informatization, computerization, and the complication of the relationship between the subject and the object of knowledge (V.S. Stepin). Let's consider other signs of modern science.

Turn to subject. In the natural sciences and humanities there is more and more talk about the human factor, according to which the laws of nature exist so that consciousness appears. Human consciousness in nature as a goal. Thus, the anthropic principle in cosmology means that physical parameters are arranged for an active observer, in order to create for him a certain field of activity (remember Protagoras: man is the measure of all things). Reality does not come to the brain from observable space and time. Protons and electrons do not contain the cause of action. There is an active observer behind the universe.

Narratives. In industrial society, narrative serves as the boundary separating the natural sciences from the humanities. The more complex objects come into the field of view of the physical sciences, the more science takes on a narrative character. A whole galaxy of scientists appears who, in addition to equations, resort to narrative when presenting physical models (Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg). Post-industrial culture returns narrative as a means of conveying cosmology, synergetics, the theory of multiplicity of universes, the anthropic principle and other models.

New epistemology. If in the classical theory of knowledge the leading principles were: absence of authorities - methodological doubt, then in the non-classical theory, on the contrary: acceptance of authority, trust. This ideal of science is characterized by a plurality of points of view, a rejection of fundamentalism and an appeal to the cognitive experience of other traditions and directions. Non-classical epistemology is alien to the true-false dichotomy. Within the framework of non-classical science, the idea of ​​discreteness and incommensurability of paradigms ( T. Kuhn), epistemological anarchism P. Feyerabend, the principle of falsificationism K. Popper, "research programs" I. Lakatosha, relativity of scientific truths W. Quine, social relay race concept M.A. Rozova.

H.G. Gadamer accuses all science of being result-oriented since Aristotelian times. Gadamer himself carefully developed the process of knowledge and understanding, showing historicism in the understanding of truth and the growth of scientific knowledge and the importance of imagination in understanding reality.

Traditional positivist criteria for assessing the adequacy of knowledge - true - false - are not enough when considering the history of knowledge. It turns out to be a paradox: Aristotle created his theory of motion, it was confirmed by practice and experience, but now we know that it is false. G. Galileo developed the foundations of mechanics and showed that Aristotle’s theory of motion was false. Galileo formulated his mechanics (free fall of a body). According to his calculations, it turned out that the speed of free fall was 5 m per second. During the fall, the speed of a freely falling body increases by 5 m per second. The following studies established that the speed of free fall of the body = 9.8 m per second. (2 times more) This means that Galilean principles and results should also be recognized as false.

Newton's classical mechanics was created at the end of the 17th century and for 200 years was considered a model of science. I. Kant even declared Newtonian mechanics to be a priori, innate truths. The creation of the theory of relativity and the development of quantum physics demonstrated the limitations of the principles of classical mechanics.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century (1808), John Dalton, developing his atomic theory, argued that atoms are indivisible. However, by the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, it was proven that Dalton's atomic theory could no longer be considered correct.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the laws of Newtonian mechanics had a huge influence on the minds of scientists, since they apply to macroscopic material objects. But at the beginning of the 20th century. With the discovery of elementary particles, it became clear that Newtonian mechanics was unsuitable for describing the motion of these particles. Quantum mechanics was then developed to explain these phenomena. These theories are full of speculation and are constantly changing. It is not difficult to guess that future scientific theories will face the same fate as the theories of the past and present: they will also change. Speaking about the problem of knowledge, Maxwell pointed out: “Our knowledge of any kind can be compared with the way a blind man comprehends the shape of solid bodies by stroking them with the end of a cane and then completing in imagination the unexplored parts of the surface according to his ideas of continuity and likelihood... We can carry out any number of lines on the surface, arrange them in a grid, but we will still be left with an unexplored surface, the area of ​​which is equal to the area of ​​the entire body.”

Now there is such a thing as doubling information. In the forties of the XX century. it was 45 years, in the fifties – 20, in the eighties – 10, by the beginning of the 21st century it will be 5 years. Those. more information becomes available in 5 years. Can true knowledge grow at such a rate? Does this mean that our knowledge is largely false? This paradox reveals the insufficiency of the concepts of “true and false”. To evaluate the history of knowledge, some other concepts are needed, not true - false, but something else. Because if you adhere to this dichotomy, then the entire history of knowledge appears as a chain of misconceptions and false beliefs.

Marxism accepted the concepts of absolute and relative truth. Then the history of knowledge appears not as a chain of errors, but as a chain of relative truths. Karl Popper talked about the degree of verisimilitude (in every statement there is something true and something false).

The question arises whether human knowledge is progressing, whether we are smarter than our ancestors, whether we know more about the world than they do, more deeply, more accurately, or not. It seems to ordinary consciousness that yes, of course, more. Human knowledge does progress; later theories give us more accurate information, a more adequate picture of reality than previous ones. In the process of developing human knowledge, we gradually free ourselves from illusions, errors, distortions and increase the amount of true knowledge. In this sense, later science knows more about the world than previous generations of scientists and people.

However, there are thinkers who reject the progress of science. The most famous representative of this position is the American historian and philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn, whose book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions,” published in 1962, created a sensation and was vigorously discussed throughout the world for 30 years. It was he who developed the idea that there is no progress in science. The development of science is discrete. If people who justify scientific progress believe that science is developing continuously: here, there was Archimedes, Euclid, and until now everything positive, true, true was passed on to previous generations, and all errors were eliminated; then Kuhn does not. His explanation is this: a new fundamental scientific theory appears, and it discards everything that came before; it begins to develop, puts forward research methods, builds its own picture of the world and the area of ​​reality that it studies, and gives impetus to the creation of new inventions, mechanisms, and engineering structures. Within the framework of one paradigm (fundamental theory) we can talk about progress. But sooner or later, the paradigm becomes outdated, ceases to provide impulses for new inventions, and a contradiction with life practices appears. A scientific revolution is taking place, i.e. one fundamental theory is replaced by another. This is the revolution that was carried out by Copernicus in the 16th century, which was carried out by Lavoisier in chemistry in the 18th century, which was carried out at the beginning of the 20th century with the creation of the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. The revolution, bringing with it a new fundamental theory, crosses out all the knowledge that was obtained before it: facts, experiments, research methods. Science begins to be built, as it were, in a new place, and it cannot be said that representatives of the subsequent stage of the development of science know more, better, or deeper than representatives of the previous stage. They just know DIFFERENT things. Those know theirs, and these know theirs, and it cannot be said that someone knows more than others. This is an alternative point of view, which now competes with the concept of the progressive development of science.

In accordance with classical ideas about science, it should not contain “any admixture of errors.” Now truth is not considered as a necessary attribute of all cognitive results that claim to be scientific. It remains as a central regulator of scientific and cognitive activity.

Classical ideas about science are characterized by a constant search for the “beginnings of knowledge,” a “reliable foundation” on which the entire system of scientific knowledge could rest. However, in modern scientific methodology, the idea of ​​the hypothetical nature of scientific knowledge is developing, when experience is no longer the foundation of knowledge, but mainly performs a critical function.

Fundamentalist validity as the leading value in classical ideas about scientific knowledge is increasingly being replaced by such a value as efficiency in solving problems.

The affirmation of the active role of the subject in the cognitive process leads to the fact that the humanitarian ideal of scientificity is increasingly considered as a transitional step to some new ideas about science that go beyond the classical ones, and sometimes even as an example of scientific knowledge.

Classical ideas about science are characterized by the desire to highlight a “scientific standard” to which all other areas of knowledge should “catch up”. However, such reductionist aspirations are criticized in the modern methodology of science, which is characterized by a pluralistic tendency in the interpretation of science, the assertion of the equivalence of various standards of scientificity, and their irreducibility to any one standard.

In general, it can be stated that science is embraced by large-system (globalist) thinking. A new type of rationality is developing, very different from the rationalism of past eras (Parmenides, Zeno, scholastics, Descartes, Hegel, B. Russell). Non-classical science reflects the general state of modern culture, which is characterized by the absence of a common mental space, appeal to the experience of non-European cultures, and recognition of the value of non-scientific forms of worldview.

Science is limited by culture. In classical science, conclusions should be determined only by the reality itself. Modern scientific methodology is characterized by the acceptance and development of the thesis about the social conditionality of scientific knowledge. Science today is a social institution and a sphere of government activity. It has ceased to be the personification of intellectual perfection, the pure pursuit of truth, due to the dominant influence of corporate interests on the dissemination of information, or even the ban on that knowledge that affects political and financial interests.

In economic matters, scientists often behave like ordinary people and use all methods to substantiate the significance and prospects of their work, not disdaining falsifications, plagiarism, and fabrications. A special place is occupied by the process of filtering knowledge, or conscious selection of those facts that confirm the dominant paradigm. R. Thompson and M. Cremo in the book “The Forbidden History of Humanity” explained how the process of knowledge selection works using the example of the suppression of archaeological finds of human presence on earth hundreds of millions of years ago.

Bottom line. We considered science as a specific type of cognitive practice that exists along with myth, religion and philosophy. From the point of view of the result, the practice that is closest to the person, which better helps in solving the fundamental problems of existence, is preferable. Practice makes sense to the extent that it helps to solve the deepest issues of a person. This is the approach of many traditional cultures, as well as Socrates and Plato. Another position, closer to the modern one, is Galileo (1564-1642), who was interested in the ability to accurately and clearly solve a specific scientific problem.

For scientific knowledge, such an external question as “for what?” may not be of interest. Science eventually begins to exist as an unconditional cultural phenomenon. Thus, gradually, rational constructs, some finite human practice, turn into an absolute idol. However, no finite human practice can replace reality, which cannot be treated as a triangle, an ideal structure. Reality requires personal self-surrender, a subjective attitude. Stated radically, this idea makes the constructs we develop through rational thought no different in principle from the constructs of ordinary experience or from the mental constructs of the savage.

Science does not exist outside of language; it is largely formed by linguistic cliches. Human language is the language of the macrocosm. And with the help of this language we want to “grab” the microworld and the megaworld. “An electron leaves a trace in a cloud chamber”, “charm quark”, “Big Furnace of Universes” - this is how we interpret a physical phenomenon in some rather relative model. We are dealing with approximate images and metaphors. Reality itself is beyond experience. Theoretical knowledge then appears as a kind of symbolic modeling, and our attitude towards it and reliance on it must be appropriate. Outside of a theoretical model, we fail to “grasp” an object. At the same time, this model is a kind of semiotic projection. Living in the world of semiotic structures, our orientation in them is determined by these same concepts. In reality, we are looking for what is given by these models, and if something does not work out, we attribute it to the researcher who was unable to ensure the transition from an abstract design to concrete reality.

Another approach is that the researcher takes into account his epistemological situation; using different methods, at the same time, he realizes that reality is higher than our human constructs, and the ways of contact with reality are wider than these constructs themselves. As living beings, we have multiple forms of experience with objective reality. To the question “What is more important is the personality, with the diversity of its forms of experience, or some limited knowledge, albeit methodologically verified?” Ancient cognitivism was the first to rationally explicate for itself the primary value of methodologically verified knowledge, and we are the heirs of this axiological turn.

Plan of seminar lesson on topic No. 1.

1. Religion, philosophy, science as forms of knowledge. Features of the scientific worldview.

2. Essence, time and geography of the preclassical ideal of science.

3. Features of the formation of classical science. Division of sciences into natural and humanities.

4. Characteristics of non-classical science

Comprehensive personal development involves identifying areas of activity in which personal development occurs. K. Marx and F. Engels proved that all social activity is polarized into the production of things and the production of people.

The production of things historically takes two forms:
natural, aimed at the material form of a substance (housing, furniture, transport, clothing, food, etc.);

symbolic, aimed at the information form of a substance (models, graphs, drawings, paintings, books, programs, etc.).

The production of people is associated with the process of reproduction of man as a biological substance and a social being and can be considered in two forms:
biological as the process of conception, birth, health and aging of a person;
social as the process of educating and transforming a biological being into a human being and managing social groups in society.

Developing this approach to comprehensive personal development, prof. L.A. Zelenov developed the concept of eight spheres of human activity and a theory of human science designed to study these spheres2. Let us briefly describe the content of each area of ​​activity (Fig.).

Economic activity is the activity of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. It occurs, first of all, as a transformation of the substance of nature and is based on the labor nature of man. Of course, economic activity can maintain its constancy only if it is modified and modified in different historical eras. Economic activity in our society is primarily occupied by direct producers of material goods (workers and peasants), as well as representatives of the design and technological intelligentsia, since they create technical and technological systems of material production. This should also include everyone who directly services the process of material reproduction: transport, raw materials, energy, repair, etc. We also include various forms of non-professional economic, household and household activities of workers as economic activities: participation in construction and agricultural work, housekeeping.

Environmental activity is an activity aimed at regulating human relations with nature and the natural environment. It is carried out in four functions: environmental conservation, environmental restoration, environmental improvement and protection of humans from the harmful effects of nature (hurricanes, earthquakes, dry winds, radiation, etc.). Caring for nature is not so much a humane act of a person in relation to it, but a person’s concern for his environment, taking into account the continuity of generations.

Environmental activities are carried out by both specialists (ecologists, geohygienists, dendrologists, flower growers, foresters, breeders, etc.) and the broad masses of workers, since nature conservation is a national cause. Combating pollution of water bodies, air, soil, urban and industrial noise, preserving and restoring green areas, caring for birds and animals, helping them during difficult times of the year, veterinary care for domestic and wild animals, breeding new varieties of plants and breeds animals, the development of gardening culture, landscape architecture and environmental design - all these are environmental activities.

Their specificity lies in the fact that the problem of preserving nature is solved here, and not the production of material goods for humans. Let us note that in economic activity, environmental functions (deforestation, hunting, berry and mushroom picking, coal and oil mining, etc.) can also be carried out along the way, positively or negatively, but they are not the goal of the economy, but a by-product. In the same way, in environmental activities (sewage treatment plants, breeding, etc.) economic problems can also be solved along the way, but this is also an indirect and not a direct result.

Scientific activity is an activity to understand the laws and properties of the real world, to generate knowledge of any type and level: theoretical and empirical, academic and everyday. A person’s cognitive activity is based on his thinking, the abstract level of which forms the sphere of science. Any sphere of activity requires providing it with knowledge, which means that any subject logically moves towards a scientific understanding of its sphere, which is why we see a pattern of “learning” of social life.

One of the forecasts states that in 2030, at the current pace of scientific development, a significant part of the adult population of highly developed countries will be engaged in scientific activities. And this will happen not at the expense of exposing all other spheres, not at the expense of people moving from the spheres of economics, pedagogy, medicine, management, etc. into the field of science, but due to the fact that each person will simultaneously engage in scientific work along with his main activity. This facet of comprehensive personality development is as natural and logical as others. And this presupposes the mastery of scientific culture by every member of society.

Artistic activity (art) is the activity of imaginative modeling of the real world, the creation, distribution, exchange, consumption of works of art. It is based on human imaginative thinking. Art is the universal social memory of humanity, a compensator for the shortcomings of a person’s individual experience, a universal language of communication between people. This activity also includes its rich applied forms - artistic and utilitarian activities: artistic design, architecture, applied art, artistic crafts, artistic sports, decorative surgery, etc. Consequently, broad prospects for inclusion in figurative modeling or figurative transformation of the objective world open up for each person.

Thus, economic, environmental, scientific and artistic activities are aimed at producing things in natural or symbolic form. The 4 other areas of activity listed below are aimed primarily at the production of people.

Medical activity is an activity aimed at preserving and restoring the vitality of a person and the human race. Its main object is the human race, and it solves two problems: preservation (prevention) and restoration (treatment) of people. It is focused on the biological essence of man (anatomical, physiological and mental subsystems of man). Medical activities are carried out in a variety of ways: prevention, therapy, surgery, psychotherapy, physiotherapy, physical therapy, etc. In addition to professional medicine, traditional medicine and amateur medical activities are also developing. Medicine and healthcare represent one of the leading sectors of the national economy, employing hundreds of thousands of people, with funding from the state budget.

Physical activity is an activity to develop a person’s physical capabilities, to achieve his physical perfection. We understand physical perfection as the optimal functioning of all systems of the human body: cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, muscular, skeletal, digestive, etc. It is clear that sport, as the highest form of physical education, does not set itself such a task: it needs records, champions, superhuman results. Physical education absorbs all the wealth of physical exercises, while sport by its nature is focused on one-dimensional special physical development in the name of high athletic results. The latter determines the specialization of sports, and the increasing intensity of sports training, which disconnects a person from other activities, and the emergence of special sports diseases, injuries, and developmental imbalances. In sports, there is an erroneous strategy of “victory at any cost,” and its task, as Olympic champion L. Latynina very accurately noted, should be “the harmonious development of the individual .... human improvement.”

Physical education is a mass form of physical development of the population. Its characteristic features are mass character, complexity, universality, continuity, and the need for minimal material and technical means. One of the negative trends in modern Russia is the decline in interest in mass physical education and the lack of government support for it in schools, universities, and enterprises. Paying for physical education has a lot of negative side effects, because... significantly reduces the mass scale and accessibility of human physical improvement.

Pedagogical activity is the activity of transmitting and mastering the social experience of humanity. It is carried out in various forms of education, training and upbringing and, accordingly, self-education, self-training and self-education. Education is divided by levels of education: primary, general secondary, specialized secondary, higher and postgraduate education.

Management activity is the activity of managing the relationships of people in society, of mobilizing people’s readiness for activity. Management is the process of organizing and coordinating people in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods. Management is carried out according to the functions of planning, forecasting, regulation, organization, control, accounting, analysis and regulation. Management functions are carried out by a statesman, a plant director, a foreman, a dean of a faculty, a student group leader, etc. In modern market conditions, democratic self-government is also developing. The process of democratization of society refers both to management, which needs to be improved, and to self-government, which needs to be developed. All this requires the formation of a management culture (knowledge, skills, attitudes) of each person.

A comprehensively developed personality is primarily included in the above-mentioned eight types of social activity; these are the fields of its social activity. But each activity presupposes readiness for it, a need (attitudes) and an ability (knowledge and skills). Through activity, a person becomes an agent of social institutions of society (organizations, institutions, societies, etc.), i.e. complete mastery of the spheres of public life is carried out.

The identification of eight main spheres of human activity creates a methodological basis for state planning and the development of a system of targeted comprehensive programs: “Economics”, “Ecology”, “Management”, “Pedagogy”, “Medicine”, “Physical Education”, “Science”, “Art” . Within their boundaries there may be subprograms: say, within the framework of the target program “Pedagogy” the subprograms “Preschool institutions”, “Secondary school”, “Colleges”, “Higher school”, “Advanced training system”, “Postgraduate education” can be distinguished.

Purposeful and long-term planning for the development of society provides for the organic inclusion of man in this planning. Regional (rural, district, city, regional, republican) programs can be built in a similar way. We need comprehensive programs for comprehensive personal development. It is no coincidence that K. Prutkov ironically said: “A specialist is like gumboil: his completeness is one-sided.”

If we consider society as an integral system in the unity of abilities, needs, motivation of activities, relationships and institutions, then man as a bearer of social essence must be considered holistically. Hence the importance of developing a theory of spheres of public life.

The science - observation, classification, description, experimental research, theoretical explanation of various phenomena; a structured, generalized and systematized reflection of objective processes; the sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality; one of the forms of social consciousness; includes both the activity of obtaining new knowledge and its result - the sum of knowledge that underlies the scientific picture of the world; designation of individual branches of scientific knowledge.

stages of development: pre-modern (accumulation of information); modern (classical stage of science); post-modern.

natural, social, humanities and technical sciences.

Earth sciences, mechanical and mathematical, physical and technical, chemical and biological, social.

Civilization is a specific type of society that has its own distinctive history. Philosopher and historian A. Toynbee identified and described 21 civilizations. Civilizations: traditional and technogenic.

Traditional: slow pace of social changes. Innovations arise in them, but progress is very slow compared to the lifespan of individuals and generations. In the culture of these societies, priority is given to traditions and norms that accumulate the experience of ancestors, and canonized styles of thinking. Innovative activity is by no means perceived here as the highest value; it has limitations and is permissible only within the framework of centuries-tested traditions. Ancient India and China, Ancient Egypt. This type of social organization has survived to this day: many third world countries retain the features of traditional society, although their collision with modern Western (technogenic) civilization sooner or later leads to radical transformations of traditional culture and way of life.

technogenic:(“Western civilization”) - the extensive development of history is replaced by an intensive one; spatial existence is temporary. A new value system is emerging. Innovation itself, originality, and newness are considered valuable. In a technogenic civilization, scientific and technological progress is constantly changing the methods of communication, forms of communication of people, personality types and lifestyles. The result is a clearly defined direction of progress with a focus on the future.

First scientific programs arose in ancient society:

Plato substantiated the need for a special ideal structure called theory, which is necessary in society to reflect objective reality. Plato was the first in the world to create an academy.

Aristotle, as a student of Plato, had already substantiated and isolated a number of its structural elements in science (object, subject of science, method, methodology), and outlined the elements of dialectics and formal logic.

The first scientific program is a mathematical program, introduced by Pythagoras, developed by Plato. It is based on the idea that the Cosmos is an ordered expression of a number of primordial essences that can be comprehended in different ways. Pythagoras found these entities in numbers and presented them as the fundamental principle of the world. The picture of the world presented by the Pythagoreans was striking in its harmony - an extended world of bodies subject to the laws of geometry, the movement of celestial bodies according to mathematical laws, the law of a beautifully constructed human body.

Second scientific program – atomism(Leucippus and Democritus). The beginnings of all things are indivisible particles - atoms and emptiness. Nothing arises from non-existence and nothing goes into oblivion. The emergence of things is a combination of atoms, and destruction is disintegration into parts, in the limit - into atoms. The cause is a vortex that gathers atoms together. This was the first program in the history of thought based on the methodological requirement to explain the whole as the sum of its individual parts.

The third scientific program - Aristotle's program. It is still close to the ancient classics with its desire for a holistic philosophical understanding of reality, but it clearly shows tendencies towards separating individual areas of research into relatively independent sciences, with their own subject and method. Aristotle proposes four causes of being: formal, material, active and goal. In his “Metaphysics,” the world is recreated as an integral, naturally occurring formation that has causes in itself. The subject of science should be things that are intelligible and not subject to momentary changes. The merit of Aristotle is “Organon” - a treatise on logic, which placed science on a solid foundation of logically based thinking using a conceptual-categorical apparatus.

Science as a social institution originated in Western Europe in the 15th and early 16th centuries. It went through 3 stages in its evolution: 1) fight against heresies; 2) empirical accumulation and generalization of facts about the evolution of nature and society; 3) the stage of the revival of science. Science as an institution has outlined: the general image of the world economic system; the main categories reflecting economic practices were identified; the phenomenon of science has become mandatory for economic practice; specially and professionally trained individuals were identified.

The very existence of science as a social institution indicated that in the system of social division of labor it must perform specific functions, namely, be responsible for the production of theoretical knowledge. Science as a social institution included not only a system of knowledge and scientific activity, but also a system of relations in science, scientific institutions and organizations.

The Institute of Economic Science arose much later, at the beginning of the 19th century, when political economy began to be offered only in universities as an optional discipline. It became mandatory at the end of the 19th century, when Marshall’s “Principles...” were published.

Science in general is characterized by the use of classical mechanics, the scientific program of thermodynamics and quantum physics.

The volume of scientific activity since the 17th century. doubles approximately every 10-15 years (increase in discoveries, scientific information, number of scientists). The development of science alternates between extensive and revolutionary periods; Science is characterized by a dialectical combination of the processes of its differentiation and integration, the development of fundamental and applied research.

Metascience- universal science; a science that claims to substantiate and study various sciences on the basis of a special metalanguage common to them. This generalization of any scientific field (when it, in turn, becomes an object of research) can also include related sciences, in order to identify relationships in the structure of knowledge and methodology within this field. “Meta” is an attempt to understand how.

sphere of human activity, the function of which is. development and theoretical systematization of objective information, knowledge about reality

System of knowledge about the patterns of development of nature, society and thinking

An area full of people wanting to snack on granite, especially since wages are constantly being delayed

Lesson learned from life experience

. "... and life" (magazine)

. "...tender passion"

. "Granite" knowledge

. “His example is for others...” (Pushkin)

. "His example to others..."

. "Spanking is not a torment, but go ahead..."

The Academy is her temple

Astronomy

Botany

Botany and physics

Genetics

Granite student food

Its “granite” is gnawed by everyone who follows the principle “live and learn”

Students are gnawing on her granite

Its granite is beyond the strength of the slow-witted

She is moved by a scientist

G. teaching, training, training. Life is a science, it teaches through experience. Give someone, go, or take someone into science. Not for flour, for science. The whip is not torment, science is ahead. Science is not flour (not beech). Science teaches only the smart. Science is to a fool what fire is to a child. I’m not whipping my fur coat, I’m giving science to the young man (my friend hits the fur coat with a whip); what to teach or are learning; any craft, skill and knowledge; but in the highest sense this is called not just one skill, but reasonable and coherent knowledge: a complete and decent collection of experimental and speculative truths, some part of knowledge; harmonious, consistent presentation of any branch, branch of information. Mathematics is a vast science, which itself is divided into many special sciences. Scientific, scientific, related to science. Scientific education based on science. Scientific view, way of thinking, judgment of a scientist. Experience often argues with science (speculative) and scientific information. Teach, teach someone what; teach, educate, instruct, admonish, direct, lead; show, explain how to do or understand something; convey information, knowledge, and skills. He taught me both literacy and crafts. You can't teach someone who is stubborn. Teach a turtle to sweep nooses and a hare to dive. They didn’t teach him while he was laying across the bench and stretched out to his full length, you can’t teach him. Teach me how to be here, give me some wisdom! What soon bores you will soon teach you. You will teach a lot, but you will be left without bread. Receive, incite, induce and encourage something bad, harmful, or instigate, instigate (from the mouth?), persuade to do harm to someone or something bad, for example. false testimony before a court; teach, soften up. He was even taught to set fire to a house. I was taught to point to it. Don't believe evil rumors. Learn, learn, teach yourself and be taught; to adopt in word and deed from another. Where did you learn to read and play pranks? In schools, children learn everything bad. The servants are indoctrinated by scammers who call it burying people. Learning cf. will graduate science, science Sciences M. Star. and sometimes even now, valid. according to verb. on and on. Even a horse carries science. In the words of science and skill, we see a remarkable convergence. To do something according to science, at instigation, being prompted, by being persuaded to do something. Science vol. Vologda learned knowledge, craft; a person who knows a craft. A scientist is a pedant in science, a scholar, a person with a narrow and one-sided scientific view. Teach m. Psk. a student devoted to science, to study, to teach something

Magazine "...and Life"

Both physics and philosophy

And chemistry, and physics, and mathematics

The root of the first word in the research institute

The region of those who want to gnaw granite

One of the "hostesses" of the Academy

She "gives joy to the old"

She feeds young men

Scientist's career

Ovid's poem "... of love"

Knowledge system

System of knowledge about nature, society

Systematic expansion of the field of human ignorance

Rival of art

Field of activity of a scientist

A field of activity that replenishes a person’s knowledge of his ignorance

Professors' Sphere

Lesson for the future

Lesson for life

Physics or botany

Philosophy, chemistry

Michel Gondry's film "... a dream"

Chemistry, physics, astronomy

Chemistry, physics, mathematics

Chemistry, physics, psychology

Good lesson for the future

What do they learn when gnawing granite?

Youth "nutrition"

The best way to satisfy personal curiosity at public expense

Its “granite” is gnawed by everyone who follows the principle “live and learn”

The Art of Authenticity

One of the forms of social consciousness

Previously - a place in the sun, now - a refuge for the poor

The most reasonable path to truth

System of knowledge about the patterns of development of nature, society and thinking

Art's rival, operating with facts

Lesson learned from life experience

She gives joy to the old

Michel Gondry's film "... a dream"

. “spanking is not a torment, but forward...” (last)

Onegin's "...tender passion"

Intuition in the service of logic

The poem of the ancient Roman poet Ovid “... of love”

Getting news from outside the media

What can you learn by gnawing on granite?

The Academy is her temple

Field of activity that increases intelligence

She nourishes the young and gives joy to the old

. “his example to others...”

Book publishing

Cybernetics

Both biology and chemistry

Engine of progress

Sopromat - what is it?

Youth "nutrition"

. "... and life" (magazine)

Ovid's poem "... of love"

. “his example is for others...” (Pushkin)

What do they learn by gnawing granite?

What teaches, gives experience

. "...tender passion"

Cemetery of hypotheses, according to Poincaré

One of the "hostesses" of the Academy

. "granite" knowledge

. “spanking is not a torment, but go ahead...”

. "... is not and will never be a finished book"

What is chemistry?

Comprehensive personal development involves identifying areas of activity in which personal development occurs.

Economic activity - This is the activity of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. It occurs, first of all, as a transformation of the substance of nature and is based on the labor nature of man.

Environmental activity is an activity aimed at regulating human relations with nature and the natural environment.

Scientific activity is an activity to understand the laws and properties of the real world, to generate knowledge of any type and level: theoretical and empirical, academic and everyday. A person’s cognitive activity is based on his thinking, the abstract level of which forms the sphere of science.

Artistic activity (art) is the activity of imaginative modeling of the real world, the creation, distribution, exchange, consumption of works of art. It is based on human imaginative thinking. Art is the universal social memory of humanity, a compensator for the shortcomings of a person’s individual experience, a universal language of communication between people.

Thus, economic, environmental, scientific and artistic activities are aimed at producing things in natural or symbolic form.

The 4 other areas of activity listed below are aimed at the production of people as their main object.

Medical activity is an activity aimed at preserving and restoring the vitality of a person and the human race. Its main object is the human race, and it solves two problems: preservation (prevention) and restoration (treatment) of people. It is focused on the biological essence of man (anatomical, physiological and mental subsystems of man).

Physical activity is an activity to develop a person’s physical capabilities, to achieve his physical perfection. We understand physical perfection as the optimal functioning of all systems of the human body.

Pedagogical activity is the activity of transmitting and mastering the social experience of humanity. It is carried out in various forms of education, training and upbringing and, accordingly, self-education, self-training and self-education.

Management activity is the activity of managing the relationships of people in society, of mobilizing people’s readiness for activity. Management is the process of organizing and coordinating people in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods. Management is carried out according to the functions of planning, forecasting, regulation, organization, control, accounting, analysis and regulation.

A comprehensively developed personality, first of all, is included in the above-mentioned eight types of society’s activities; these are the fields of its social activity. But each activity presupposes readiness for it, a need (attitudes) and an ability (knowledge and skills). Through activity, a person becomes an agent of social institutions of society (organizations, institutions, societies, etc.), i.e. complete mastery of the spheres of public life is carried out.

If we consider society as an integral system in the unity of abilities, needs, motivation of activities, relationships and institutions, then man as a bearer of social essence must be considered holistically. Hence the importance of developing a theory of spheres of public life.

Thus, managing the development of a person’s personality is the most important function of the enterprise’s personnel management service and every manager who strives to establish good relationships in his work team.