Looking at our planet from the heights of outer space, a comparison immediately arises with a blue ball, which is completely covered with water. At this time, the continents seem to be small islands in this endless ocean. This is quite natural, because water occupies 79.8% of the entire surface, and 29.2% falls on land. The water shell of the Earth is called the hydrosphere; its volume is 1.4 billion m3.

Water resources and their purpose

Water resources- These are waters from rivers, lakes, canals, reservoirs, seas and oceans that are suitable for use in agriculture. This also includes groundwater, soil moisture, swamps, glaciers, and atmospheric water vapor.

Water appeared on the planet about 3.5 billion years ago and initially it was in the form of vapors that were released during the degassing of the mantle. Today, water is the most important element in the Earth's biosphere, because nothing can replace it. However, recently, water resources have ceased to be considered limited, because scientists have managed desalinate salt water.

Purpose of water resources- support the vital activity of all life on Earth (humans, plants and animals). Water is the basis of all living things and the main supplier of oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. Water also takes part in climate formation - absorbing heat from the atmosphere in order to release it in the future, thereby regulating climate processes.

It would be worth remembering that water sources play an honorable role in the modification of our planet. People have always settled near reservoirs or water sources. Thus, water promotes communication. There is a hypothesis among scientists that if there were no water on Earth, the discovery of America would have been postponed for several centuries. And Australia would still be unknown today.

Types of water resources

As already said water resources- these are all the water reserves on the planet. But on the other hand, water is the most common and most specific compound on Earth, because only it can exist in three states (liquid, gaseous and solid).

The Earth's water resources consist of:

• surface water(oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, swamps) are the most valuable source of fresh water, but the thing is that these objects are distributed quite unevenly over the Earth’s surface. Thus, in the equatorial zone, as well as in the northern part of the temperate zone, water is in excess (25 thousand m 3 per year per person). And the tropical continents, which consist of 1/3 of the land, are very acutely aware of the shortage of water reserves. Based on this situation, their agriculture develops only under the condition of artificial irrigation;
• groundwater;
• reservoirs created artificially by man;
• glaciers and snowfields (frozen water from glaciers in Antarctica, the Arctic and snowy mountain peaks). This is where most of the fresh water is found. However, these reserves are practically unavailable for use. If all the glaciers are distributed over the Earth, then this ice will cover the earth with a ball 53 cm high, and by melting it, we thereby raise the level of the World Ocean by 64 meters;
• moisture what is found in plants and animals;
• vapor state of the atmosphere.

Water consumption

The total volume of the hydrosphere is amazing in its quantity, however, only 2% of this figure is fresh water, moreover, only 0.3% is available for use. Scientists have calculated the freshwater resources that are necessary for all humanity, animals and plants. It turns out that the supply of water resources on the planet is only 2.5% of the required volume of water.

Around the world, about 5 thousand m3 are consumed annually, while more than half of the consumed water is lost irrevocably. In percentage terms, the consumption of water resources will have the following characteristics:

• agriculture - 63%;

• industrial water consumption - 27% of the total;

• municipal needs take 6%;
• reservoirs consume 4%.

Few people know that in order to grow 1 ton of cotton, 10 thousand tons of water are required, 1 ton of wheat requires 1500 tons of water, the production of 1 ton of steel requires 250 tons of water, and 1 ton of paper requires at least 236 thousand tons of water.

A person should consume at least 2.5 liters of water per day, but on average this same person spends at least 360 liters per day in a large city, since this figure includes all possible uses of water, including watering streets, washing vehicles and even firefighting.

But the consumption of water resources does not end there. This is evidenced, for example, by water transport or the process of breeding both marine and fresh fish. Moreover, for breeding fish you need exclusively clean water, saturated with oxygen and free of harmful impurities.

A great example of the use of water resources is recreational areas. There is no such person who would not like to relax by a pond, relax, and swim. In the world, almost 90% of recreational areas are located near bodies of water.

The need to protect water resources

Considering the current situation, we can conclude that water requires a protective attitude towards itself. Currently, there are two ways to conserve water resources:

• reduce fresh water consumption;
• creation of modern high quality collectors.

Storing water in reservoirs limits its flow into the world's oceans. Storing water underground helps prevent its evaporation. The construction of canals can easily solve the issue of delivering water without penetrating into the ground. Humanity is also thinking about the latest methods of irrigating agricultural land, making it possible to moisten the territory using wastewater.

But each of the above methods actually affects the biosphere. The reservoir system, for example, does not allow the formation of fertile silt deposits; canals interfere with the replenishment of groundwater. Therefore, today one of the most effective ways to conserve water resources is wastewater treatment. Science does not stand still in this regard, and various methods make it possible to neutralize or remove up to 96% of harmful substances.

Water pollution problem

Population growth, the rise of production and agriculture... These factors contributed to the shortage of fresh water. In addition, the share of polluted water resources is also growing.

Main sources of pollution:

• industrial waste;
• municipal wastewater;
• plums from the fields (meaning when they are oversaturated with chemicals and fertilizers;
• burial of radioactive substances near a body of water;
• wastewater coming from livestock complexes (water is characterized by an excess of biogenic organic matter);
• shipping.

Nature provides for self-purification of water bodies. This happens due to the presence of plankton in the water, ultraviolet rays entering the water, and the sedimentation of insoluble particles. But unfortunately there is much more pollution and nature on its own is not able to cope with such a mass of harmful substances that man and his activities provide to water resources.

Unusual sources of drinking water

Recently, humanity has been thinking about how to use unconventional sources of water resources. Here are the main ones:

• tow icebergs from the Arctic or Antarctica;
• carry out desalination of sea waters (actively used at the moment);
• condense atmospheric water.

In order to obtain fresh water by desalinating salt water, desalination stations are installed on sea vessels. There are already about hundreds of such units in the whole world. The world's largest producer of such water is Kuwait.

Fresh water has recently acquired the status of a global commodity; it is transported in tankers using long-distance water pipelines. This scheme works successfully in the following areas:

• the Netherlands gets water from Norway;
• Saudi Arabia receives resource from Philippines;
• Singapore imports from Malaysia;
• water is pumped from Greenland and Antarctica to Europe;
• The Amazon transports drinking water to Africa.

One of the latest achievements is installations with the help of which the heat of nuclear reactors is used simultaneously for desalination of sea water and production of electricity. At the same time, the price of one liter of water costs little, since the productivity of such installations is quite high. It is recommended to use water that has passed through this route for irrigation.

Reservoirs can also help overcome freshwater shortages by regulating river flow. In total, more than 30 thousand reservoirs have been built in the world. In most countries, there are projects for the redistribution of river flow through its transfer. But most of these programs have been rejected due to environmental concerns.

Water resources of the Russian Federation

Our country has a unique water resource potential. However, their main drawback is their extremely uneven distribution. So, if we compare the Southern and Far Eastern federal districts of Russia, then in terms of the size of local water resources they differ from each other by 30 times, and in terms of water supply - by 100 times.

Rivers of Russia

When thinking about the water resources of Russia, first of all, we should note the rivers. Their volume is 4,270 km 3 . There are 4 water basins on the territory of Russia:

• the seas of the Northern and Arctic Oceans, as well as the large rivers flowing into them (Northern Dvina, Pechora, Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Kolyma);
• the Pacific Ocean (Amur and Anadyr);
• seas of the Atlantic Ocean (Don, Kuban, Neva);
• the internal basin of the Caspian Sea and the flowing Volga and Ural.

Since in the central regions the population density is greater than, for example, in Siberia, this leads to the disappearance of small rivers and water pollution in general.

Lakes and swamps of Russia

Half of all fresh water in the country comes from lakes. Their number in the country is approximately 2 million. Of these, the largest ones are:

• Baikal;
• Ladoga;
• Onega;
• Taimyr;
• Khanka;
• Vats;
• Ilmen;
• White.

A special place should be given to Lake Baikal, because 90% of our fresh water reserves are concentrated in it. In addition to the fact that this lake is the deepest on earth, it is also characterized by a unique ecosystem. Baikal is also included in the UNESCO natural heritage list.

Lakes of the Russian Federation are used for irrigation and as sources for water supply. Some of the listed lakes have a decent supply of medicinal mud and therefore are used for recreational purposes. Just like rivers, lakes are characterized by their uneven distribution. They are mainly concentrated in the Northwestern part of the country (Kola Peninsula and the Republic of Karelia), the Ural region, Siberia and Transbaikalia.

The swamps of Russia also play an important role, although many people treat them with disrespect by draining them. Such actions lead to the death of entire huge ecosystems, and as a result, rivers do not have the opportunity to cleanse themselves naturally. Swamps also feed rivers and act as their controlled object during floods and floods. And of course, swamps are a source of peat reserves.

These elements of water resources are widespread in the North-West and North-Central part of Siberia; the total area of ​​swamps in Russia is 1.4 million km 2.

As we see, Russia has great water resource potential, but we should not forget about the balanced use of this resource and treat it with care, because anthropogenic factors and huge consumption lead to pollution and depletion of water resources.

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Municipal, industrial and agricultural water supply

Municipal water supply. The share of municipal water supply in the total volume of water consumed both in the world and in Russia is relatively small, but it is of decisive importance for the life of society. Lack of clean drinking water is one of the main causes of severe infectious diseases. More than half of the world's population uses water that does not meet sanitary and hygienic requirements.

In Russia, with regard to municipal water supply, the highest security indicator has been adopted - 97% in terms of the number of uninterrupted years. Municipal water supply is designed to satisfy the population's needs for water, therefore very high demands are placed on its quality, both in terms of physical properties and chemical and bacteriological indicators. To bring the quality of water into compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards, it is filtered, coagulated, chlorinated or fluoridated for disinfection, and enriched with ammonia to improve taste.

Standards for domestic and drinking water supply depend on the improvement of the housing stock of the settlement, climatic, and often historical conditions. Water consumption per person ranges from 30-50 to 400 l/day or more. Fluctuations in water consumption abroad are also significant. So in London there are 260 liters per person per person, and in New York - 600 liters per day. On average in Russia, urban water consumption is estimated at 450 l/day, of which 50% goes for household and drinking water, 20% for municipal water use and 30% for industrial needs. In many small towns and villages, specific water consumption is 1.5-2 times lower than the national average.

About 60% of water for public water supply is taken from surface and slightly more than 40% from underground sources, which have the best water quality due to their minimal contamination with chemicals, chemicals and pathogenic microbes.

Further improvement of water use in public utilities requires a number of measures, among which should be mentioned: centralized water supply in the coming years to the entire urban population (currently 98% of cities and 86% of urban-type settlements); worldwide savings and reduction of drinking water losses; stabilization of specific water consumption; development and implementation of improved water supply and distribution systems; a significant increase in the level of mechanization and automation of technological processes of water use.

Water supply for industry. Industry is one of the largest consumers of water. Different industries have different requirements for water quantity and quality. Thus, the production of 1 ton of cotton fabric consumes about 250 m 3 of water, 1 ton of synthetic fiber - 2500-5000 m 3. The chemical industry requires a lot of water: about 1000 m 3 of water is used in the production of 1 ton of ammonia and 2000 m 3 - 1 ton of synthetic rubber. Non-ferrous metallurgy is also a water-intensive consumer: 1 ton of nickel consumes 4000 m3 of water. It should be borne in mind that at enterprises of the same industry, depending on the technological level of production, different amounts of water are used to produce 1 ton of product; for example, to produce 1 ton of oil, from 0.1 to 50 m 3 of water is required. Typically, water consumption at related enterprises differs by 5-10 times.

Industrial water supply systems pay great attention to the volume of water consumed. With a direct-flow system, water from water supply sources is supplied to the enterprise, and after use and purification, and sometimes without it, it is returned to the source. In recycling water supply systems, water after the technological process is cooled, purified and then sent back to the production cycle. The system is periodically replenished with fresh water to compensate for losses. In a repeated water supply system, water used in some processes is transferred for use in other processes of the same or other enterprises and then, after appropriate treatment, is discharged into water bodies. Often the last two systems are combined. Irreversible water consumption in industry is most often small and ranges from 2 to 20% depending on the nature of production and the technology used, and only in rare cases, such as in the oil refining industry, reaches 50%. Irreversible water consumption consists of the volume of water included in the product and losses at all stages of the technological process.

Water in industrial production is used as a raw material and solvent. The coolant, finally, is a medium that absorbs and transports dissolved impurities. Most of it is used in industry for cooling: for example, in thermal power engineering - 85% of the total consumption; The bulk of water is used for the same purposes at metallurgical plants.

Despite the widespread introduction of recycled water supply - on average up to 75%, and in some industries even more, industry annually withdraws about 50 km 3 of water from water bodies, including approximately 4 km 3 of sea water. Industrial enterprises annually discharge more than 30 km 3 of water into water bodies, while only about half of the discharged water is subjected to all types of treatment (mechanical, biological and physicochemical), and approximately 5-7% of water is discharged without treatment at all.

In the context of the planned acceleration of the development of industrial production, the implementation of measures aimed at improving the use of water resources becomes important. The most important among these measures are the following: standardization of the quantity and quality of water consumed in various industries per unit of production; further expansion of the capacity of recycling water supply systems and closed water supply systems and closed water use systems; use of treated municipal wastewater in a number of industries; worldwide reduction in water leakage; recycling of sediments in wastewater from industrial enterprises and their processing for further use in the national economy.

It should be borne in mind that along with a reduction in the specific consumption of fresh water in some industries, such as oil and gas, in the future the consumption will increase, as the conditions for the development and operation of wells become more complicated.

Agricultural consumption. The annual water consumption in rural areas in our country is about 12 km 3 . The main consumers of water are rural settlements, livestock farming, agricultural processing enterprises, as well as production areas for equipment maintenance.

A characteristic feature of water supply to rural settlements is large intra-daily unevenness, significant volumes of irrecoverable water consumption due to the poor development of sewerage systems and relatively low specific water consumption per capita - 30-100 l/day. In general, 33% of rural settlements have centralized water supply. Compared to municipal water supply in cities, the condition of water intake structures in rural areas is at a lower technical level.

Groundwater is mainly used for agricultural water supply. The use of surface water is widespread only in some regions of Russia - the Volga region, West Siberia and Far East (30-35%).

Livestock farming is a significant consumer of water in rural areas. Animal water consumption rates range from 2 l/day (lamb) to 200 l/day (cow). Water withdrawn for livestock needs must meet the same requirements as water used for domestic and drinking purposes. Drinking contaminated water to livestock reduces animal productivity by 40-70%. In the southern regions of the country, livestock farming cannot develop without watering vast pastures, which, as a rule, They have very limited water resources.

To improve agricultural water supply, the following is required: the introduction of centralized water supply and sanitation systems with biological wastewater treatment facilities; increasing recycling and reuse of water; thorough treatment of wastewater and its use for irrigation of agricultural crops; improvement of water intake from surface sources; desalination of mineralized waters; using solar and wind energy to lift water. Increasing the improvement of rural settlements and increasing the volume of agricultural products will inevitably lead to an increase in agricultural water supply and sanitation in the near future.

Energy.

Over 80% of electricity worldwide, including Russia, is generated by thermal power plants, which are the largest industrial consumers of water. Their operation requires water on average 35-40 m 3 /s per 1 million kW of installed capacity. Large thermal power plants are usually located on the banks of large rivers, reservoirs, lakes, or special rather large reservoirs are created for their operation, which requires large capital investments.

The total volume of water consumed by the country's thermal power plants is about 160 km 3 , including 70 km 3 of fresh water and 90 km 3 of recycled water, which exceeds the annual total flow of such rivers as the Dnieper, Don, and Ural. Direct-flow cooling systems are typical for condensing power plants, and for thermal power plants, as a rule, circulating systems are used. About 95% of wastewater from thermal power plants is cooling water, which is practically uncontaminated. A small part of the water demand of power plants (about 8 km 3) is covered by sea water. Stations operate on sea water on the coasts of the Baltic and Caspian seas and the Pacific Ocean.

The impact of power plants on the hydrological and biological regimes of reservoirs is diverse and is caused by injury to organisms when they pass through the station units along with cooling water, the entry of additional heat along with the discharged water, which increases the temperature of the reservoirs, and the introduction of pollutants with the discharge waters.

When heated water is discharged, the water temperature in reservoirs and watercourses increases, which affects fauna and flora. Increasing it to 20-25°C or more has a positive effect, stimulating the growth and reproduction of organisms, and to 26-30°C or more it suppresses the development of the main groups of aquatic organisms. The continuous flow of heated water enhances the current that carries plankton. The living conditions of not only plankton, but also zoobenthos change due to the erosion of soil by this flow, the oxygen regime is disrupted, and the water is polluted with oil products. Salts of heavy metals, acids and alkalis, and through atmospheric emissions - ash, oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, etc. At the same time, if thermal discharges enter the bottom layers, the thermal regime of the reservoir and the circulation of water masses in some cases can be improved. The absence of ice cover in winter or a shorter period of its existence should also be assessed positively, since this improves the oxygen regime of the reservoir.

The above indicates the importance of choosing a water supply system for power plants, the need for a more rational placement of them, and the development or improvement of a system of technological processes for the utilization of thermal water on the farm. For these purposes, research and practical work is being carried out on the use of warm water for irrigation of agricultural crops, water supply to livestock farms, heating of open ground, growing green algae for fish feed and breeding fish in pools.

Considering that in the most developed countries in 2000, about 10% of water resources were used for cooling thermal power plants, one can imagine how great the economic and environmental importance is the construction of thermal power plants on the banks of reservoirs. Reducing the negative impact of thermal power plants on water bodies is facilitated by: maximum limitation of direct-flow water supply systems; use of circulating systems; chemical treatment of additional water from circulating technical water supply systems; reuse of oily and fuel oil waters after preliminary treatment; neutralization of wastewater from treatment plants.

The most important sub-sector of the country's fuel, energy and water sector is hydropower. The hydropower potential has been developed in the Volga region and the Urals by 60-80%, in Siberia, the Far East and Central Asia by 3-5 to 20%. The installed capacity and electricity generation of hydroelectric power plants in the country's energy systems have been 18-20 and 12-14%, respectively, over the past decades. Annual fuel savings due to the operation of hydroelectric power plants are estimated at 70-80 million tons of standard fuel for the country as a whole.

The main function of hydroelectric power plants in modern energy systems is to regulate the uniformity of the daily load of energy systems. The difference between the maximum and minimum loads of the daily schedule in all energy systems is 10-20 million kW. Covering peak load schedules with thermal power plants is not always possible or advisable for technical and economic reasons. Frequent alternation of deep unloading and full loading of thermal units reduces the service life of equipment, increases the frequency and volume of repair work, increases the accident rate, and significantly increases the specific fuel consumption for electricity production. Units of hydroelectric power plants quickly (within 1 minute) and easily absorb the load of power systems. The possible power control range of hydroelectric power plants is usually close to their full installed capacity.

At most hydropower reservoirs, daily and weekly flow regulation is carried out, and only at the largest reservoirs - seasonal and perennial. In the absence of regulating reservoirs, hydroelectric power plants would produce energy not in accordance with the requirements of energy systems, but depending on the water content of the river at a given time. Since the flow of water in rivers at different times of the year changes tens and hundreds of times, hydroelectric power plants without regulating reservoirs would also change their power and energy production. In addition, when using hydropower resources without regulating reservoirs, it is extremely difficult to select the installed capacity of the station. If the power of the station was calculated in accordance with the maximum flow, then for most of the year many units would be idle due to lack of water. Thus, hydroelectric power plants that do not have regulating reservoirs are characterized by a low runoff utilization factor - often 0.1 - 0.2.

In addition to natural preconditions that necessitate the creation of reservoirs for hydroelectric power plants, there are technical and economic factors. Among them are uneven electricity consumption throughout the day, week and year, and discrepancies in time between household water consumption in the river and the load schedule of the energy system.

Due to the increase in load peaks in power systems, hydroelectric power plants are not able to cover them everywhere. Therefore, in recent decades, the construction of pumped storage power plants (PSPPs), which also impose their own special requirements on water resources, has been increasingly deployed.

The main elements of a pumped storage power plant: two reservoir basins - upstream and downstream, located at different levels, usually ranging from several tens to 200 m; a hydroelectric power station building with circulating units operating alternately in pump and turbine modes; pipelines connecting both basins to the hydroelectric power plant building. During the period of night load failures in the energy system, the energy of thermal and nuclear power plants is used by units operating in pumping mode to pump water from the lower basin to the upper one. During the period of peak load, water from the upstream basin is discharged into the downstream basin and the pumped storage power plant feeds the energy system.

At the majority of operating pumped storage stations, the downstream and upstream basins are created specifically: the downstream - by constructing a small dam in the river bed, the upstream - through excavation and embankment of the pool, as a rule, along its entire perimeter. As pumped storage power plants develop and their installed capacity increases (up to 2 million kW), natural lakes and reservoirs are used as downstream basins.

One of the problems that arise during the operation of pumped storage power plants is their impact on the environment, primarily on the downstream basin. The intake of tens of millions of cubic meters of water into the upper basin during the day and the discharge of this water into the lower basin have a significant impact on the regime of levels, flows, and, consequently, on all hydrological processes in the reservoir. Significant daily amplitude of fluctuations in water level in reservoirs activates the processes of coastal processing, affects the conditions of spawning and feeding of fish, vegetation, water quality, conditions and conditions for using beaches. Naturally, the larger the reservoir or lake, the less the natural conditions change when used as a downstream basin for a pumped storage power plant.

Water transport and timber rafting.

The length of inland waterways in the country is 123.2 thousand km. The length of artificial waterways running through reservoirs, canals, locked and regulated rivers exceeds 21 thousand km.

In the freight turnover of all types of transport, river transport accounts for a little more than 4%. In 1996, 649 million tons of cargo were transported, and cargo turnover reached 256 billion tons km. Dry cargo ships predominate in river transport (558 million tons). These are mainly mineral building materials, coal and coke, petroleum products, timber and firewood, grain, metals and scrap metal. The cost of transporting goods by river transport is 1/3 lower than by rail, and 3-15 times less than by road.

Despite its insignificant share in the total cargo turnover, water transport occupies a significant place in the national economy. In the regions of the European North, North-Western, Volga, Volga-Vyatka, East Siberian, the share of cargo transportation by river transport is 20-40% of the total volume of traffic. The importance of water transport for the development of industry and agriculture in the northern and eastern regions of the country cannot be overestimated.

The relatively small share of river transport in the total cargo turnover of many countries, including Russia, is explained by the seasonality of its operation, the discrepancy in some areas of the network of inland waterways with the main direction of cargo flows, the isolation of river basins, as a rule, shallow depths in unregulated areas, and stepwise depths within the same basin, the presence of rifts and rapids with high current speed, instability of ship fairways and other reasons. Many of the listed shortcomings of inland waterways can be eliminated only through the construction of waterworks and canals and the creation of reservoirs.

For river transport, it is more desirable to begin the construction of hydraulic structures in the upper reaches of rivers, since in these cases, thanks to reservoirs, navigable depths in the shallowest sections of rivers increase due to the creation of both backwater and special navigation releases into the lower reaches. Sometimes, in the interests of river transport, it is preferable to begin the construction of waterworks in that section of the river where there are rapids that interfere with navigation.

The transformation of rivers into cascades of reservoirs and the regulation of their flow significantly changed the conditions for timber rafting, which plays a significant role in timber transportation in Russia. The regulation of flow led to the elimination of moth rafting, in which large losses of wood are noted, and created opportunities for the transition to transportation of timber in bags, “cigars”, rafts and on cargo ships, as well as for the involvement in the exploitation of new forest areas thanks to the formation of waterways along rivers previously unsuitable for timber rafting.

The negative consequences of flow regulation for timber rafting include the presence of more difficult wind-wave conditions, a reduction in the duration of navigation, a sharp decrease in flow speed (important for rivers where timber is mainly floated downstream), sharp daily and weekly fluctuations in water levels in the lower reaches hydroelectric power stations, the need to divide rafts into sections to transport timber through locks and subsequent formation into rafts in the tailwater.

The main positive consequences of flow regulation for timber rafting, as well as for shipping, are to increase the depth, width and radius of curvature of the shipping channel, and, consequently, the rafting capacity of rivers, to ensure more constant water levels during the navigation period, and to the possibility of enlarging rafting and formation raids , which allows for increased mechanization and automation of raid work.

From the above it follows that positive factors in the creation of waterworks and reservoirs for river transport and timber rafting are more important than negative ones. The cost of transporting goods across reservoirs, depending on the increase in guaranteed depths compared to the cost of transporting along the river in its natural state, decreases by 1.5-5 times, and capital investments in river transport - by 1.2-3 times.

The construction of waterworks and the formation of reservoirs was a significant contribution to the creation of a unified deep-water system of inland waterways in the European part of Russia.

Fisheries.

Russia's inland seas, lakes, rivers and reservoirs are rich in fish resources. They are home to more than 1,000 species of fish, of which about 250 serve as fisheries. The life of the most commercially valuable anadromous and semi-anadromous fish is closely connected with rivers. The time spent in the river from the moment of entering the mouth for passage to spawning grounds until the juveniles migrate to the sea is 15-20 months for some species of migratory fish. Fish catches in inland waters fluctuated in the first half of the 20th century. from 600 to 900 thousand tons per year. In 1995, the total catch was 10.5 million tons.

In recent years, the conditions for fishing and fish reproduction have changed dramatically. Many reservoirs have been subjected to strong anthropogenic impact. The flow of a number of rivers of great fishery importance (Volga, Don) is regulated. The spawning grounds of valuable species of migratory fish have been cut off, and the water conditions for herring spawning grounds have changed. Fish die in hydroelectric power station turbines and water intakes. Large-scale chemical and biological pollution of water bodies continues. All this led to the destruction or significant disruption of some aquatic ecosystems, and, consequently, to the deterioration of the natural reproduction of fish stocks and a sharp reduction in the number of many valuable commercial fish. Thus, the Aral Sea has practically lost its fishing significance. The total catch in the Sea of ​​Azov has decreased by approximately half. The most valuable species (pike perch, bream, ram, herring and sturgeon) - almost 15 times. The most significant fishery reservoir in the country is the Caspian Sea. It accounts for half of the catches from the country's inland waters, and sturgeon - about 90%.

Over the past 40 years, catches in inland seas have sharply deteriorated in quality. For example, if earlier small fish, herring and other valuable species of fish predominated, now their share has decreased to 20%, and the proportion of sprat has increased to 80% of the total catch.

In many lakes and reservoirs, the quality of catches has also deteriorated, which is explained by anthropogenic impact.

To preserve and increase the productivity of reservoirs, along with the development of underexploited areas of the World Ocean, measures should be taken to increase the productivity of coastal areas of the Russian Federation through reclamation and acclimatization of fish and invertebrates. Much work remains to be done on inland waters. The range of these measures is very wide: from stopping the pollution of inland water bodies, ensuring a hydrological regime acceptable for fisheries, organizing new fish hatcheries for the industrial breeding of juvenile sturgeon, salmon and other valuable fish species and increasing the efficiency of more than 160 existing factories, creating a wide network of fish hatcheries for providing pond and lake fish farms with juvenile fish and stocking reservoirs with fish before constructing mathematical models of the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. Also important will be the development of fish production using thermal water from power plants and other energy enterprises, the organization of industrial breeding of herbivorous fish on cooling ponds, the rationalization and regulation of fish farming in inland waters, the creation of biologically based fish protection and fish passage structures on rivers and watercourses.

Recreation.

Organizing recreation for the population is becoming an increasingly urgent task in many countries around the world. Reservoirs play a special role in organizing recreation. Opportunity to engage in a variety of recreational activities and sports, favorable temperature and air humidity near water. The aesthetic effect of picturesque landscapes, the change of impressions - all this allows us to consider reservoirs as natural hospitals.

In Russia, seas, lakes, reservoirs, large and medium-sized rivers are of great recreational importance. Small rivers up to 25 km long are not of particular interest for mass recreational use, since in their natural state they become very shallow after the passage of the spring flood.

One of the significant recreational resources is the water resources of the seas - the Black, Azov and Caspian. However, only a small portion of the coastline with a favorable combination of various natural factors is suitable for recreation.

Rivers, lakes and seas are widely used for recreational purposes, but cannot fully satisfy the ever-increasing demand. Therefore, one of the significant water recreational resources, the importance of which is increasing, are reservoirs. Their recreational use is of particular interest for the following reasons:

in many areas, especially those poor in natural reservoirs, reservoirs increase the recreational value and capacity of landscapes, and in some cases serve as the core around which such landscapes are created;

most complex reservoirs are built near cities, often cities are located directly on the banks of reservoirs;

small reservoirs for recreational purposes can also be constructed in urban areas;

complex and single-purpose reservoirs in mountainous and northern regions have good access roads, so they are more accessible for recreational use than lakes;

The length of the coastline of reservoirs in a number of countries of the world, including Russia, significantly exceeds the length of the coastline of the seas.

However, the creation of reservoirs often causes negative consequences for the recreational use of the territory: flooding and flooding of objects that are of great value for organizing recreation (mineral springs, sanatoriums, architectural monuments, etc.).

When assessing the recreational potential of water bodies, one cannot focus only on the water area or the territory of the coastal zone, as is often done, but must take into account all the factors and conditions of the aquatic-territorial recreational complex.

Making high demands on the quality of the environment, recreational activity, when uncontrolled, can have both “massive” and “salvo” adverse effects on the natural environment.

Optimizing recreational water use is a complex problem. Its goal is to maximize the efficiency of recreational use of water bodies with minimal negative impact on water quality and the state of ecosystems with equal one-time and operating costs. Its solution is impossible without developing a scientific basis for determining permissible recreational loads. These standards vary significantly in individual countries and regions of one country, depending on the parameters of water bodies, the intensity of their use by vacationers and other factors. In accordance with various standards, one rowing boat requires from 0.4 to 2 hectares of water surface, a motor and sailing boat - from 1.2 to 8 hectares, water skis - from 4 to 16 hectares, one swimmer - from 4 to 23 m2 of water surfaces and from 20 to 46 m2 of beach. In areas experiencing an acute shortage of inland waters, these standards are somewhat lower. Desirable parameters of reservoirs vary depending on the types of recreational activities within fairly large limits: area - from 5 hectares for swimming to 300-900 hectares for sailing, length - from 50 m for swimming to 15 km for water-motor sports, etc. . (4)

Even though about 70% of the earth's surface is covered with water, it is still a very valuable resource. Especially when it comes to quality. What are water resources? What is their structure and world reserves? What are the most pressing water problems of our time? All this will be discussed in the article.

What are water resources?

Geographic, as is known, consists of five spheres: litho-, atmospheric-, bio-, techno- and hydrosphere. What are water resources? This is all the water that is contained in the hydrosphere. It is found in oceans and seas, lakes and rivers, glaciers and reservoirs, in the soil and in the air (in the form of water vapor).

About 70% of the earth's surface is covered with water. Only 2.5% of this volume is fresh water, which humanity needs. In absolute terms, this is no less than 30 million cubic kilometers, which is thousands of times greater than the needs of world civilization. However, we should not forget that the bulk of these reserves are contained in the “ice shells” of Antarctica, the Arctic and Greenland. In addition, the state of water resources available to humans is often unsatisfactory.

Structure of planetary water resources

The planet's water resources are divided into two classes:

• waters of the World Ocean;
• terrestrial (or surface) waters.

Rivers, lakes, reservoirs and glaciers contain only four percent of the world's water reserves. Moreover, most of them (by volume) are confined specifically to glaciers. And the largest “reservoir” of fresh water on the planet is Antarctica. Underground flows also belong to the Earth's water resources, but their quantitative estimates vary greatly in numbers.

Pure is the most valuable for humans and any other living organisms. Its protection and rational use is one of the most important tasks of humanity at the present stage.

Water resource update

Features of water resources include the possibility of self-purification and renewal. However, the renewability of water depends on several factors, in particular the type of hydrological body.

For example, water in rivers is completely renewed in about two weeks, in a swamp - in five years, and in a lake - in 15-17 years. This process takes the longest time in ice sheets (on average it takes 10 thousand years), and the fastest in the biosphere. In a living organism, water goes through a full renewal cycle in a few hours.

Distribution of water resources by macroregion and country

The Asian region leads the world in terms of total water resources. It is followed by South America, North America and Europe. The poorest corner of the planet in terms of water reserves is Australia.

However, there is one important nuance here. So, if you calculate the volume of water reserves per capita of a continent or part of the world, you get a completely different picture. With this calculation, Australia comes out on top, but Asia comes in last. The thing is that in Asia the population is growing at a rapid pace. Today it has already reached the milestone of four billion people.

Which countries don't have to worry about water? Below are the top five states with the largest fresh water reserves. This:

1. Brazil (6950 km 3).
2. Russia (4500 km 3).
3. Canada (2900 km 3).
4. China (2800 km 3).
5. Indonesia (2530 km 3).

It is worth noting the uneven distribution of water resources on Earth. Thus, in the equatorial and temperate climate zones they are even found in abundance. But in the so-called “arid” (tropical and subtropical climate) the population experiences an acute shortage of life-giving moisture.

Water resources and people

Water is in demand in everyday life, energy, industry, and recreation. The use of this resource may be accompanied by its extraction from a natural source (for example, from a river bed) or without it (for example, for the operation of water transport).

The largest consumers of water resources are:

• Agriculture;
• industrial and energy enterprises;
• communal sphere.

The volumes of municipal water consumption are constantly growing. According to environmentalists, in large cities of economically developed countries, one person uses at least 300 liters of liquid daily. This level of consumption may lead to a shortage of this resource in the near future.

Pollution and depletion of world waters

Pollution of water resources is very acute. Today it has reached catastrophic levels in some regions of the planet.

Every year, millions of tons of chemicals, oil and petroleum products, phosphorus compounds, and municipal solid waste enter the World Ocean. The latter form huge ones out of garbage. The waters of the Persian Gulf, North and Caribbean seas are very polluted with oil. Already about 3% of the surface of the North Atlantic is covered with an oil film, which has a detrimental effect on living organisms of the ocean.

A big problem is also the reduction of the planet's water resources. However, the deterioration of the quality of life-giving moisture is no less dangerous. After all, one cubic meter of untreated waste can end up in the natural riverbed and spoil tens of cubic meters of clean water.

In developing countries of the world, according to statistics, every third resident suffers from poor-quality drinking water. It is the main cause of many diseases in the arid zone of Africa and Latin America.

Main types and sources of pollution of world waters

In ecology, water pollution is understood as exceeding the maximum permissible concentrations of substances contained in them (harmful chemical compounds). There is also such a thing as depletion of hydro resources - deterioration in water quality due to constant activity.

There are three main types of water pollution:

• chemical;
• biological;
• thermal;
• radiation.

Any substance that enters a hydrological body as a result of human activity can act as a pollutant. At the same time, this substance significantly worsens the natural quality of water. One of the most dangerous modern pollutants is oil and its products.

Sources of pollution can be permanent, periodic or seasonal. They can be of both anthropogenic and natural origin, be point, linear or areal.

The largest source of pollution are the so-called ones, that is, those that are formed as a result of industrial, construction or communal human activities. They are usually oversaturated with harmful organic and inorganic substances, heavy metals and microorganisms. There are industrial (including mine), municipal, agricultural and other types of wastewater.

Characteristics of water resources in Russia

Russia is one of the countries in the world that does not experience water shortages. The country's modern water resources are 2.5 million rivers and watercourses, about two million lakes and hundreds of thousands of swamps. The territory of Russia is washed by twelve seas. A huge amount of fresh water is stored in glaciers (mountain and polar).

To improve water supply, thousands of reservoirs of various sizes have been created on the territory of our state. In total, they contain about 800 km 3 of fresh water. These objects not only serve as artificial reservoirs of a valuable natural resource, but also regulate the regime of rivers and prevent floods and floods. Thus, their importance cannot be overestimated.

Among the main problems of water resources in Russia, the following should be highlighted:

• irrational water use;
• deterioration in the quality of drinking water;
• unsatisfactory condition of waterworks and hydraulic structures.

Finally...

What are water resources? This is all the water that is contained in the hydrosphere. Countries such as Brazil, Russia, Canada, China, Indonesia and the USA have the largest reserves of water resources.

In modern realities, the problem of pollution and irrational use of world waters is becoming very urgent, and in some regions - especially acute. Its solution is impossible without consolidating the efforts of all countries on the planet and effectively implementing joint global projects.

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• Introduction
• 5. Self-purification of reservoirs
• 7. Water protection zones
• 7.1. Protection of water bodies
• 7.2. Protection of small rivers
• 7.3. Domestic wastewater treatment
• 7.4. Industrial wastewater treatment
• 8. Drainless production
• Conclusion

Introduction

The existence of the biosphere and humans has always been based on the use of water. Humanity has constantly strived to increase water consumption, putting a huge variety of pressure on the hydrosphere.

At the current stage of development of the technosphere, when the world's human impact on the biosphere is increasing to an even greater extent, and natural systems have largely lost their protective properties.

The problems of clean water and the protection of aquatic ecosystems are becoming more acute with the historical development of society, and the impact on nature caused by scientific and technological progress is rapidly increasing.

A small amount of pollution cannot cause a significant deterioration in the condition of the reservoir, since it has the ability of biological purification, but the problem is that, as a rule, the amount of pollutants discharged into the water is very large and the reservoir cannot cope with their neutralization.

Water supply and water use are often complicated by biological interference: overgrowing of canals reduces their throughput, algae blooms worsen water quality and its sanitary condition, fouling interferes with navigation and the functioning of hydraulic structures. Therefore, the development of measures with biological interference acquires great practical importance and becomes one of the most important problems of hydrobiology.

Due to the disruption of the ecological balance in water bodies, a serious threat of significant deterioration of the environmental situation as a whole is created. Therefore, humanity faces the enormous task of protecting the hydrosphere and maintaining biological balance in the biosphere.

1. Water resources and their use

Water occupies a special position among the natural resources of the Earth. Famous Russian and Soviet geologist Academician A.P. Karpinsky said that there is no more precious mineral than water, without which life is impossible.

The basis of Russia's water resources is river flow, which averages 4262 km 3 per year, of which about 90% falls in the basins of the Arctic and Pacific oceans. The basins of the Caspian and Azov Seas, where over 80% of Russia's population lives and its main industrial and agricultural potential is concentrated, account for less than 8% of the total river flow.

Currently, the availability of water per person per day varies in different countries of the world. In a number of countries with developed economies, the threat of water shortages is imminent. The shortage of fresh water on earth is growing exponentially. However, there are promising sources of fresh water - icebergs born from the glaciers of Antarctica and Greenland.

A person cannot live without water. Water- one of the most important factors determining the location of productive forces, and very often the means of production. The increase in water consumption by industry is associated not only with its rapid development, but also with an increase in water consumption per unit of production.

Modern large thermal power plants consume huge amounts of water. Only one station with a capacity of 300 thousand kW consumes up to 120 m 3 /s, or more than 300 million m 3 per year. Gross water consumption for these stations will increase approximately 9-10 times in the future.

One of the most significant water consumers is agriculture. It is the largest water consumer in the water management system. Growing 1 ton of wheat requires 1,500 m 3 of water during the growing season, 1 ton of rice requires more than 7,000 m 3 . The high productivity of irrigated lands has stimulated a sharp increase in the area worldwide - it is now equal to 200 million hectares. Constituting about 1/6 of the total crop area, irrigated lands provide approximately half of agricultural products.

A special place in the use of water resources is occupied by water consumption for the needs of the population. Household and drinking purposes in our country account for about 10% of water consumption. At the same time, uninterrupted water supply, as well as strict adherence to scientifically based sanitary and hygienic standards, are mandatory.

The use of water for economic purposes is one of the links in the water cycle in nature. But the anthropogenic link of the cycle differs from the natural one in that during the process of evaporation, part of the water used by humans returns to the atmosphere desalinated. The other part (which, for example, makes up 90% for water supply to cities and most industrial enterprises) is discharged into water bodies in the form of wastewater contaminated with industrial waste.

According to the State Water Cadastre, the total water intake from natural water bodies in 1995 amounted to 96.9 km 3 . More than 70 km 3 were used for the needs of the national economy, including for:

industrial water supply - 46 km 3;

irrigation - 13.1 km 3;

agricultural water supply - 3.9 km 3;

other needs - 7.5 km 3 .

Industry needs were met by 23% by drawing water from natural water bodies and by 77% by a system of recycling and re-sequential water supply.

2. Classification of water uses

The following classification criteria are established for water use:: water use goals; water use facilities; technical conditions for water use; conditions for providing water bodies for use; nature of water use; method of using water bodies; impact of water use on water bodies.

According to the purposes of water use, they are divided into household and drinking, municipal needs of the population, for medical, resort and health purposes, agricultural needs, irrigation and water supply, industrial needs, heat power needs, territorial redistribution of surface water flow and replenishment of groundwater reserves, hydropower needs, needs water transport and timber rafting, fisheries needs, wastewater discharge, other needs, multi-purpose water use.

Based on water use objects, waters are divided into surface, underground, internal, and sea.

According to the technical conditions of water use - general and special.

According to the conditions for providing water bodies for water use - joint and separate.

By the nature of its use, water is considered as a substance with certain properties, as mass and energy potential, and as a living environment.

According to the method of using water bodies - with water withdrawal (with and without return), without water withdrawal.

According to the impact of water use on water bodies - quantitative and qualitative.

3. Sources of water pollution

Sources of pollution are recognized as objects from which discharge or otherwise enter water bodies of harmful substances that worsen the quality of surface waters, limit their use, and also negatively affect the condition of the bottom and coastal water bodies.

The protection of water bodies from pollution is carried out by regulating the activities of both stationary and other sources of pollution.

On the territory of Russia, almost all water bodies are subject to anthropogenic influence. The water quality in most of them does not meet regulatory requirements. Long-term observations of the dynamics of surface water quality have revealed a tendency towards an increase in their pollution. Every year the number of sites with high levels of water pollution (more than 10 MPC) and the number of cases of extremely high pollution of water bodies (over 100 MPC) increases.

The main sources of pollution of water bodies are enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, pulp and paper, and light industry.

Land water pollution.

Microbial water pollution occurs as a result of the entry of pathogenic microorganisms into water bodies. Thermal water pollution is also identified as a result of the influx of heated wastewater.

Pollutants can be divided into several groups. According to physical condition they are distinguished insoluble, colloidal And soluble impurities. In addition, pollution is divided into mineral, organic, bacterial And biological.

The degree of danger of pesticide drift during the treatment of agricultural land depends on the method of application and the form of the drug. With ground processing, the danger of polluting water bodies is less. During aerial treatment, the drug can be carried hundreds of meters by air currents and deposited on untreated areas and the surface of water bodies.

4. Reservoirs and hydraulic structures

In the hydrographic network of Russia, artificial reservoirs - reservoirs (reservoirs of slow water exchange) are playing an increasingly important role, designed to equalize and regulate flow, as well as ensure the operation of power plants, irrigation systems, etc. In order to balance the supply of water resources, Russia has implemented a broad program of water management and hydropower construction. At the same time, the regulation of rivers with dams and the formation of reservoirs also has negative sides.

Maintenance of reservoirs provided for special use in proper technical and sanitary condition is carried out by the organizations in whose use they are located.

Hydraulic structures include: dams, hydroelectric power station buildings, drainage, drainage and water outlet structures, tunnels, canals, pumping stations, shipping locks, ship lifts, structures designed to protect against floods and destruction of the banks of reservoirs, banks and river bottoms, structures (dams) , enclosing storage facilities for liquid waste from industrial and agricultural organizations, devices against erosion on canals, as well as other structures for using water resources and preventing the harmful effects of water and liquid waste.

On the territory of Russia there are 3 thousand reservoirs and several hundred reservoirs of industrial wastewater and waste, belonging to different forms of ownership, belonging to various ministries and departments. Up to 12% of them have been in operation without reconstruction for more than 50 years

The deterioration and aging of fixed assets in the water sector, the liquidation of a number of management bodies, the emergence of various forms of ownership, and the lack of proper supervision over safe operation make it increasingly possible to break through reservoir dams and wastewater storage tanks, which can lead to catastrophic consequences and threaten the natural basis of human life.

Based on the statistics of accidents at dams (1% of their total number), it can be assumed that in the coming years, due to wear and tear of fixed assets, up to 10-15 accidents with catastrophic consequences may occur at hydraulic structures. According to Roskomvod, about 12% of pressure hydraulic structures of reservoirs and about 20% of liquid industrial waste storage tanks are in emergency or pre-emergency condition. First of all, this applies to the Krasnodar hydroelectric complex, Shershnevsky, Argazinsky, Dolgobrodsky, and Kyshtym hydroelectric complexes in the Chelyabinsk region, Pravdinsky in the Kaliningrad region, Kuzminsky hydroelectric complex on the Oka in the Moscow region and a number of other similar structures.

Many tailings and sludge dumps are filled above design levels, which can lead to serious consequences. The task is to neutralize toxic substances in industrial waste entering these storage facilities and to ensure systematic control over the purity of water discharged from tailings storage facilities into open water bodies.

In the last two or three years, due to financial problems, repair and maintenance work on a number of reservoirs listed on the balance sheet of metallurgical plants has practically ceased. Meanwhile, they are in a pre-emergency and emergency condition and require complete restoration and major repairs.

5. Self-purification of reservoirs

Every water is a complex system inhabited by bacteria, higher aquatic plants, and various invertebrate animals. Their combined activity ensures the self-purification of water bodies. One of the environmental tasks is to support the ability of self-purification of water bodies from impurities.

Factors of self-purification of water bodies can be divided into three groups: physical, chemical and biological.

Among the physical factors, dilution, dissolution and mixing of incoming contaminants are of paramount importance. Good mixing and reduced concentrations of suspended particles are ensured by the fast flow of rivers. The self-purification of reservoirs is facilitated by the settling of insoluble sediments to the bottom, as well as the settling of polluted waters. In zones with a temperate climate, the river cleans itself after 200-300 km from the place of pollution, and in the Far North - after 2 thousand km.

Water disinfection occurs under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The disinfection effect is achieved by the direct destructive effect of ultraviolet rays on protein colloids and enzymes of the protoplasm of microbial cells, as well as spore organisms and viruses.

Among the chemical factors of self-purification of reservoirs, oxidation of organic and inorganic substances should be noted. The self-purification of a reservoir is often assessed in relation to easily oxidized organic matter or by the total content of organic matter.

The sanitary regime of a reservoir is characterized primarily by the amount of oxygen dissolved in it. It should be at least 4 mg per 1 liter of water at any time of the year for reservoirs of the first and second types. The first type includes reservoirs used for drinking water supply to enterprises, the second type includes those used for swimming, sporting events, and those located within populated areas.

Biological factors of self-purification of a reservoir include algae, mold and yeast. However, phytoplankton does not always have a positive effect on self-purification processes: in some cases, the massive development of blue-green algae in artificial reservoirs can be considered a process of self-pollution.

Representatives of the animal world can also contribute to the self-purification of water bodies from bacteria and viruses. Thus, the oyster and some other amoebas adsorb intestinal and other viruses. Each mollusk filters more than 30 liters of water per day.

The cleanliness of water bodies is unthinkable without protecting their vegetation. Only on the basis of deep knowledge of the ecology of each reservoir and effective control over the development of the various living organisms inhabiting it can positive results be achieved, transparency and high biological productivity of rivers, lakes and reservoirs ensured.

Other factors also adversely affect the self-purification processes of water bodies. Chemical pollution of water bodies with industrial wastewater, nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.) inhibits natural oxidative processes and kills microorganisms. The same applies to the discharge of thermal wastewater by thermal power plants.

A multi-stage process, sometimes extending over a long time, is self-purification of oil. Under natural conditions, the complex of physical processes of self-purification of water from oil consists of a number of components:

evaporation;

settling of lumps, especially those overloaded with sediment and dust;

sticking together of lumps suspended in the water column;

floating of lumps forming a film with inclusions of water and air;

reducing the concentrations of suspended and dissolved oil due to settling, floating and mixing with clean water.

The intensity of these processes depends on the properties of a particular type of oil (density, viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion), the presence of colloids, suspended and transportable plankton particles, etc. in water, air temperature and solar illumination.

6. Sanitary conditions for wastewater discharge

Reservoirs and watercourses (water bodies) are considered polluted if the composition and properties of water in them have changed under the direct or indirect influence of industrial activities and domestic use by the population and have become partially or completely unsuitable for one of the types of water use. The suitability of the composition and properties of surface waters used for domestic and drinking water supply and cultural and everyday needs of the population, as well as for fishery purposes, is determined by their compliance with the requirements and standards at the same time. If a water body or its section is used for various needs of the national economy, more stringent standards for the quality of surface water should be used when determining the conditions for wastewater discharge.

The composition and properties of water and water bodies must be monitored at a site located on watercourses 1 km above the nearest water use points downstream, and on stagnant reservoirs and reservoirs - 1 km on both sides of the water use point.

The composition and properties of water in reservoirs or watercourses at points of drinking and cultural and domestic water use must comply with the standards in all respects.

It is prohibited to discharge into water bodies:

a) wastewater containing substances or products of transformation of substances in water for which MPCs have not been established, as well as substances for which there are no analytical control methods;

b) wastewater, which can be eliminated by organizing waste-free production, rational technology, maximum use in recycling and reuse water supply systems after appropriate treatment and disinfection in industry, urban agriculture and for irrigation in agriculture;

c) untreated or insufficiently treated industrial, household wastewater and surface runoff from the territories of industrial sites and populated areas.

It is prohibited to discharge wastewater containing pathogens of infectious diseases into water bodies. Wastewater hazardous in terms of epidemics can be discharged into water bodies only after appropriate treatment and disinfection.

It is prohibited to allow leaks into water bodies from oil and product pipelines, oil fields, as well as the dumping of garbage, untreated sewage, sludge, ballast water and leakage of other substances from floating water transport vehicles.

It is prohibited on water bodies used primarily for water supply to the population, moth rafting of timber, as well as rafting of wood, in bundles and bags without ship traction.

It is not allowed to discharge wastewater into water bodies used for water and mud treatment, as well as into water bodies located within the sanitary protection districts of resorts.

The wastewater discharge point should be located downstream of the river from the border of the populated area and all places of water use by the population, taking into account the possibility of reverse flow during surge winds. The location of wastewater discharge into stagnant and low-flow water bodies - lakes, reservoirs - must be determined taking into account sanitary, meteorological and hydrological conditions in order to eliminate the negative impact of wastewater discharge on the water use of the population.

Discharge of wastewater into water bodies within a populated area through existing outlets is permitted only in exceptional cases with an appropriate feasibility study and in agreement with state sanitary control authorities.

It is prohibited to accept into operation facilities with deficiencies, deviations from the approved design that do not ensure compliance with standard water quality, as well as without approbation, testing and checking the operation of all installed equipment and mechanisms.

7. Water protection zones

According to the Water Code of the Russian Federation, in order to maintain water bodies in a condition that meets environmental requirements, to prevent pollution, clogging and depletion of surface water, as well as to preserve the habitat of flora and fauna, water protection zones are established. Within water protection zones, coastal protective strips are established where it is prohibited to plow the land, cut down and uproot forests, place livestock farms and camps, and conduct other activities.

State control over compliance with the regime for the use and protection of coastal resources and other economic activities of citizens and legal entities in the water protection zone is carried out by the bodies and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

7.1 Protection of water bodies

Russian water legislation regulates relations in the field of use and protection of water bodies in order to ensure the rights of citizens to clean water and a favorable aquatic environment; maintaining optimal water use conditions; quality of surface and groundwater in accordance with sanitary and environmental requirements; protection of water bodies from pollution, clogging and depletion; conservation of biological diversity of aquatic ecosystems.

According to the Water Code of the Russian Federation, the use of water bodies for drinking and domestic water supply is a priority. For these water supplies, surface and underground water bodies protected from pollution and clogging must be used.

Discharge of waste and drainage waters into water bodies is prohibited:

containing natural healing resources;

classified as specially protected;

located in resort areas, places of recreation for the population;

located in spawning and wintering areas of valuable and specially protected fish species, in habitats of valuable species of animals and plants listed in the Red Book.

7.2 Protection of small rivers

Small rivers (up to 100 km long), which account for a significant part of Russia's surface runoff, are the most susceptible to anthropogenic impact.

A unique component of the geographic environment, small rivers largely perform the function of regulating the water regime of certain landscapes, maintaining balance and redistributing moisture. The main feature of the formation of the flow of small rivers is their very close connection with the landscape of the basin, which causes the slight vulnerability of these water arteries - not only with excessive use of water resources, but also with the development of the catchment area.

Under the influence of economic activities, small rivers prematurely entered the aging phase. A decrease in water content and siltation of riverbeds contributes to rapid overgrowth and swamping, degradation occurs, and small rivers disappear from the face of the earth.

Deforestation and excessive plowing of adjacent territories lead to a significant reduction in surface and underground groundwater flow into small rivers. Particularly harmful is the plowing of slopes, gullies, and ravines, which disrupts the erosion resistance of the soil and a significant part of it is washed into rivers. The rivers silt and become shallow.

Wastewater from large pig farms is extremely dangerous for a small river. There are no reliable methods of treatment yet to make the waste from a pig farm suitable for disposal into the river. This means that this wastewater cannot be discharged into the river at all. They should be fully used for fertilizing irrigation of fodder crops, provided that there are large areas of land near the farm. Another solution to the problem is to create installations on large farms for processing manure into biogas and fertilizers.

The protection of the waters of small rivers is closely related to the protection from pollution of the territories from which the river collects its waters.

Small rivers have much less ability to self-purify than large ones, and the self-purification mechanism is easily disrupted when overloaded. In this regard, the task of creating water protection zones on their banks is especially acute.

Gullies adjacent to the water protection zone must be strengthened so that they do not clog or silt up the reservoir. All polluting objects must be removed from the zone. Springs feeding a river or lake must be cleared and maintained.

7.3 Domestic wastewater treatment

Cleaning of drains- this is the destruction or removal of certain substances from them, and disinfection- removal of pathogenic microorganisms.

Sewerage- a set of engineering structures and sanitary measures that ensure the collection and removal of contaminated wastewater outside populated areas and industrial enterprises, their purification, neutralization and disinfection.

Through municipal sewerage systems, 13.3 billion m3 of wastewater is annually discharged into surface water bodies, of which 8% of wastewater is treated at wastewater treatment plants to the established standards, and 92% is discharged insufficiently purified and 18% without any treatment.

Currently, the most widely used sewerage system in our country involves the construction of two pipeline networks: through the production and household network, household and industrial wastewater is supplied to treatment facilities, and through the drain, as a rule, without treatment, to the nearest water body rain and melt water are drained.

7.4 Industrial wastewater treatment

Mechanical wastewater treatment ensures the removal of suspended coarse and fine (solid and liquid) impurities. Coarse impurities are usually separated from wastewater by sedimentation and flotation, while fine impurities are separated by filtration, sedimentation, electrochemical coagulation, and flocculation.

The most common chemical method of wastewater treatment is neutralization. Wastewater from many industries contains sulfuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids. Neutralization of acidic wastewater can be done by filtering it through magnesite, dolomite, or any limestone. Often, after chemical treatment, wastewater is subjected to biological treatment. In some cases, chemical refining can extract valuable compounds and thereby reduce production.

Currently, wastewater is often further purified for reuse in industrial water supplies. This is done when high salt content, biologically non-oxidizable organic substances, carcinogenic compounds, etc. are detected in the water. The wastewater treatment method is chosen depending on the specific residual water contaminants.

Industrial wastewater containing toxic organic and mineral substances is increasingly being neutralized using the fire method. Under the influence of high temperature during the combustion of organic fuel, toxic organic substances are oxidized and completely burned, while mineral substances are partially removed in the form of a melt, and partially carried away by flue gases in the form of fine dust and vapors. The most versatile and efficient are cyclone furnaces (reactors).

8. Drainless production

The pace of industry development today is so high that the one-time use of fresh water reserves for production needs is an unacceptable luxury.

Therefore, scientists are busy developing new drainless technologies, which will almost completely solve the problem of protecting water bodies from pollution. However, the development and implementation of waste-free technologies will require some time; the real transition of all production processes to waste-free technology is still far away. In order to fully accelerate the creation and implementation of the principles and elements of waste-free technology of the future into national economic practice, it is necessary to solve the problem of a closed cycle of water supply to industrial enterprises. At the first stages, it is necessary to introduce water supply technology with minimal fresh water consumption and discharge, as well as to build treatment facilities at an accelerated pace.

When building new enterprises, sometimes a quarter or more of capital investment is spent on settling tanks, aerators, and filters. It is, of course, necessary to build them, but a radical solution is to radically change the water use system. We must stop viewing rivers and reservoirs as garbage collectors and transfer industry to closed-loop technology.

With closed technology, the enterprise returns used and purified water back into circulation, and only replenishes losses from external sources.

In many industries, until recently, wastewater was not differentiated, it was combined into a common flow, and local treatment facilities for waste disposal were not built. Currently, a number of industries have already developed and partially implemented closed water circulation schemes with local treatment, which will significantly reduce specific water consumption standards.

Conclusion

At all levels of aoreolization, living things exist only as part of a contradictory whole - the biological body in its relationships with the totality of surrounding conditions. The inhabitants of a particular body of water, regardless of their systematic position, convergently acquire similar adaptations to existence within their habitat, forming characteristic life forms.

Organisms, populations, biocenoses are not rigid systems that collapse under environmental conditions that differ from optimal ones; they are capable of adapting to the environment.

At present, assessment of the degree of deterioration of conditions in aquatic ecosystems under the influence of pollution or other anthropogenic impacts can only be formulated with varying accuracy in relation to practical forms of use of water bodies.

A well-developed biological cycle can serve as an indicator of the ecological well-being of aquatic ecosystems. Forecasting the state of aquatic ecosystems and the influence of trends in their change is extremely important for long-term planning of the rational exploitation of water bodies.

Man must stabilize his exchange with nature on the basis of its adequacy, a harmonious combination of the interests of society and the capabilities of nature.

List of sources used

Akimova T.A., Ecology: Textbook for universities. - M., 2000.

Golubev I.R., Novikov Yu.V. Environment and its protection. - M., 2000.

Danilov V.I. Ecological problems. - M., 1999.

Ermakova V.D., Sukhareva A.Ya. Environmental law of Russia. - M., 1997.

Novikov Yu.V. Ecology, environment and people. - M., 1998.

Sukachev V.N. Fundamentals of ecology. Textbook for universities. - M., 2001.

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Generation of wastewater from populated areas, their impact on water bodies. The main categories of wastewater depending on their origin: domestic, industrial, atmospheric. Examples of wastewater treatment facilities in small towns and villages.

course work, added 08/17/2015


Mechanical wastewater treatment at sewage treatment plants. Assessment of the quantitative and qualitative composition, concentration of contaminants in domestic and industrial wastewater. Their biological treatment at sewage treatment plants.

course work, added 03/02/2012


Sources of pollution of inland water bodies. Wastewater treatment methods. Selection of technological scheme for wastewater treatment. Physico-chemical methods of wastewater treatment using coagulants. Separation of suspended particles from water.

abstract, added 12/05/2003


Natural, climatic and industrial conditions of Birsk. Sources of pollution of inland water bodies. Technology of wastewater treatment at wastewater treatment plants. Determination of the species composition of activated sludge. Annual dynamics of the species composition of activated sludge.

thesis, added 11/21/2014


Contaminants contained in domestic wastewater. Biodegradability as one of the key properties of wastewater. Factors and processes influencing wastewater treatment. Basic technological scheme of treatment for medium-capacity facilities.

abstract, added 03/12/2011


Sources of pollution of inland water bodies. Wastewater treatment methods. Electrochemical activation as environmentally friendly technologies of the present and future, some areas of its effective application. Technological process of water purification "Emerald".

test, added 01/28/2012


Pollution of water resources by wastewater. The influence of wastewater discharge from metallurgical enterprises on the sanitary and general environmental condition of water bodies. Regulatory framework in the field of wastewater treatment. Methodology for assessing environmental aspects.

Moscow Open Social University

Faculty of Finance and Economics

Extramural

TEST

in the discipline: “Environmental Economics”

on the topic of: "Ecological and economic aspects of using

water resources"

2nd year students

Melnik Elena Ivanovna

Specialty: 060400 – finance and credit

Teacher:

Plan

Introduction

Water reserves on Earth are enormous; they form the hydrosphere - one of the powerful spheres of our planet. The hydrosphere is the most important element of the biosphere. It unites all the waters of the globe, including oceans, seas and surface waters of land. In a broader sense, the hydrosphere includes groundwater, ice and snow in the Arctic and Antarctica, as well as atmospheric water and water contained in living organisms.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction; transitions from one type of water to another constitute a complex water cycle on the globe. The origin of life on Earth is associated with the hydrosphere, since water is capable of forming complex chemical compounds that led to the emergence of organic life, and then the formation of highly organized animal organisms.

Water ensures the existence of living organisms on Earth and the development of their life processes. It is part of the cells and tissues of any animal and plant.

The climate and weather on Earth largely depend and are determined by the presence of water spaces and the content of water vapor in the atmosphere. In complex interaction, they regulate the rhythm of thermodynamic processes excited by the energy of the Sun. Oceans and seas, due to the high heat capacity of water, serve as heat accumulators and are capable of changing the weather and climate on the planet. The ocean, dissolving atmospheric gases, is an air regulator.

Water finds the widest use in human activities. Water is a material used in industry and is part of various types of products and technological processes, acts as a coolant, and serves for heating purposes. The force of falling water drives the turbines of hydroelectric power plants. The water factor is decisive in the development and location of a number of industrial productions. Water-intensive industries that rely on large sources of water supply include many chemical and petrochemical industries, where water is not only an auxiliary material, but also one of the important types of raw materials, as well as electric power, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, some forestry, light and food industries industry. Water is widely used in the construction and building materials industry. Human agricultural activity is associated with the consumption of huge amounts of water, primarily for irrigated agriculture. Rivers, canals, lakes are cheap means of communication. Water bodies are also places of recreation, restoration of people's health, sports, and tourism.

In this regard, the rational use of water resources and their protection are key to achieving sustainable development.

1. Ecological and economic importance of water resources

Water masses on the Earth's surface form a thin geological shell, which occupies most of the Earth's surface and forms the World Ocean (361 million km3, or 70.8% of the entire surface of the planet). The total volume of the hydrosphere is 1.4 billion km3, its share in relation to the entire mass of the Earth does not exceed 0.02%. The bulk of the water in the hydrosphere is concentrated in the seas and oceans (94%), the second largest volume of water masses is occupied by groundwater (3.6%), ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and mountain glaciers (2%). Land surface waters (rivers, lakes, swamps) and atmospheric waters account for fractions of a percent of the total volume of water in the hydrosphere (0.4%).

Water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O), a colorless liquid without odor, taste or color. Under natural conditions, it always contains dissolved salts, gases and organic substances, their amount varies depending on the origin of the water and environmental conditions. When the salt concentration is up to 1 g/l, water is considered fresh, up to 24.7 g/l - brackish, above - salty.

Freshwater resources constitute a small proportion of the total volume of the entire hydrosphere, but they play a decisive role in the general circulation of water, in the connections of the hydrosphere with ecological systems, in human life and the existence of other living organisms, in the development of production. Fresh waters account for about 2% of the hydrosphere; the used part (river runoff, lake water) is less than 1% of the total volume of hydrosphere waters.

On average, water makes up about 90% of the mass of all plants and 75% of the mass of animals. Complex reactions in animal and plant organisms can only occur in the presence of an aqueous environment. The adult human body contains 60-80% water. A person’s physiological need for water can be satisfied only with water and nothing else. The loss of 6-8% of water is accompanied by a semi-fainting state, 10% - hallucination, 12% - leads to death.

With regard to human economic activity, the concept of “water resources” is introduced - these are all reserves of surface water suitable for economic use, including soil and atmospheric moisture. Surface water resources are determined mainly by the total runoff in an average year in terms of water content. They are distributed and used unevenly across the Earth and individual regions.

The CIS countries have the world's largest water resources, in total they rank second in the world (after Brazil) in terms of average annual river flow, and they also have significant potential groundwater reserves. However, these resources are distributed extremely unevenly across the territory of the CIS countries, which is explained by different geographical, climatic, geological and hydrogeological conditions of individual regions.

Water distribution and consumption by continent

The total average annual flow volume is almost 4.7 thousand km 3, and the vast majority of it falls on the Russian Federation - 4.27 thousand km 3 (more than 90%). Ukraine has significant water resources - 0.21 thousand km 3 (4.5%), Kazakhstan - 0.12 thousand km 3 (2.7%), Uzbekistan - 0.11 thousand km 3 (2.3%). ), Tajikistan - 0.1 thousand km 3 (2.0%).

The uneven distribution of runoff also corresponds to the different availability of water resources in the CIS countries. If the specific flow supply for the CIS countries as a whole is equal to 210 thousand km 3 per year per 1 km 2, then the highest in Georgia and Tajikistan are 877 and 667, respectively, and the lowest in Turkmenistan - 145 and in Kazakhstan - 46 thousand km 3 per year per 1 km 2.

2. Main directions of water resources use

In its development, humanity has gone through many stages in the use of water. Initially, the direct use of water prevailed - for drinking, for cooking, and for domestic economic purposes. The importance of rivers and seas for the development of water transport is gradually increasing. The emergence of many centers of civilization is associated with the presence of waterways. People used water spaces as routes of communication, for fishing, salt production and other types of economic activities. During the heyday of shipping, the most economically developed and wealthy were the maritime powers. And today, the use of waterways has a significant impact on the development of the world economy. Thus, maritime transport transports 3-4 billion tons of cargo per year, or 4-5% of the total volume of cargo transportation, while carrying over 30 trillion tons/km, or 70% of the total global cargo turnover.