What do biological sciences study: a list of applied subjects. Human biology

Biology is the science that studies living organisms. It reveals the laws of life and its development as a special natural phenomenon.

Among other sciences, biology is a fundamental discipline and belongs to the leading branches of natural science.

The term “biology” consists of two Greek words: “bios” - life, “logos” - teaching, science, concept.

It was first used to refer to the science of life in the early 19th century. This was done independently by J.-B. Lamarck and G. Treviranus, F. Burdach. At this time, biology was separated from the natural sciences.

Biology studies life in all its manifestations. The subject of biology is the structure, physiology, behavior, individual and historical development of organisms, their relationship with each other and the environment. Therefore, biology is a system, or complex, of sciences that are largely interconnected. Various biological sciences arose throughout the history of the development of science as a result of the isolation of various areas of study of living nature.

The major branches of biology include zoology, botany, microbiology, virology, etc. as sciences that study groups of living organisms that differ in key aspects of the structure and life activity. On the other hand, the study of the general patterns of living organisms led to the emergence of such sciences as genetics, cytology, molecular biology, embryology, etc. The study of the structure, functionality, behavior of living beings, their relationships and historical development gave rise to morphology, physiology, ethology, ecology, evolutionary teaching.

General biology studies the most universal properties, patterns of development and existence of living organisms and ecosystems.

Thus, biology is a system of sciences.

Rapid development in biology was observed in the second half of the 20th century. This was primarily due to discoveries in the field of molecular biology.

Despite its rich history, discoveries continue to be made in the biological sciences, discussions are ongoing, and many concepts are being revised.

In biology, special attention is paid to the cell (since it is the main structural and functional unit of living organisms), evolution (since life on Earth has undergone development), heredity and variability (underlying the continuity and adaptability of life).

There are a number of successive levels of life organization: molecular genetic, cellular, organismal, population-species, ecosystem. On each of them, life manifests itself in its own way, which is studied by the corresponding biological sciences.

The importance of biology for humans

For humans, biological knowledge primarily has the following meaning:

• Providing food for humanity.
• Ecological meaning - control of the environment so that it is suitable for normal life.
• Medical significance - increasing the duration and quality of life, fighting infections and hereditary diseases, developing drugs.
• Aesthetic, psychological significance.

Man can be considered as one of the results of the development of life on Earth. People's lives are still strongly dependent on general biological mechanisms of life. In addition, man influences nature and experiences its impact himself.

Human activities (development of industry and agriculture), population growth have caused environmental problems on the planet. The environment is polluted and natural communities are destroyed.

To solve environmental problems, it is necessary to understand biological patterns.

In addition, many branches of biology are important for human health (medical significance). People's health depends on heredity, living environment and lifestyle. From this point of view, the most important sections of biology are heredity and variability, individual development, ecology, and the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere.

Biology solves the problem of providing people with food and medicine. Biological knowledge underlies the development of agriculture.

Thus, a high level of development of biology is a necessary condition for the well-being of humanity.

Throughout his entire existence on Earth, man studies the diversity of flora and fauna. Biological sciences, the list of which is constantly growing, are of great importance for the formation of a modern natural science picture of the world. Methods and approaches are improved over time, allowing numerous natural secrets to be revealed.

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Appearance of the term

The term is based on two Greek words: bios – life, logos – science, teaching. Who coined this term? Concept biology means a set of sciences about living nature, reveals the essence of life. It was proposed by two prominent scientists G. Trevinarus and J.-B. Lemarque back in the early 19th century. Two centuries later, science continues to actively develop; scientists have already advanced quite far in their research.

Main scientific directions

Today there are numerous biological disciplines and industries, aimed at studying living beings, ranging from amoeba with ciliates to the human body. Life - main subject research. The variety of its manifestations, the impact on surrounding processes and phenomena, organization at all levels and segments are among the objects.

Let's name the main ones biological disciplines and we will talk in detail about some of them:

• general biology,
• systemic,
• virology,
• micrology,
• microbiology,
• genetics,
• anatomy,
• ethology,
• cytology,
• developmental biology,
• paleontology and others.

It is important to know what science studies the structure and functions, which is one of the main disciplines. Its name - cytology. The subject of study is all the processes that occur with a cell: birth, vital activity, reproduction, nutrition, aging and death.

Biological disciplines

Any manifestations of life become a subject of study for biologists . These include:

• distribution across the territory,
• structure,
• origin,
• functions,
• species development,
• connections with other living beings and objects.

Important! The task of biology is to reveal and study the essence of all biological patterns, with the aim of mastering and managing them.

Study methods:

• observation to describe phenomena;
• comparison – detection of general patterns;
• experiment - artificial creation of situations that reveal the properties of organisms;
• historical method - understanding the world around us using available data;
• modeling - creating models of various biological systems;
• modern advanced methods based on the latest technologies and achievements.

Main industries, things you need to know and what you need to study:

• zoology – animals;
• entomology – insects;
• botany – plants;
• anatomy – structure of tissues and organs;
• genetics – laws of variability and heredity;
• physiology – the essence of all living things, life under pathologies and normality;
• – the relationship of organisms with the environment;
• bionics – organization, structure, properties of living nature;
• biochemistry – the chemical composition of organisms and cells, the basic processes that form the basis of life;
• biophysics – physical aspects of the existence of living nature;
• microbiology – bacteria and other microorganisms;
• molecular biology – methods of storing and transmitting genetic information;
• cell engineering – production of hybrid cells;
• bitechnology – the use of waste products of organisms for technological solutions;
• selection - breeding new varieties that are resistant to pests and harsh climates, improving the qualities of cultivated plants.

Not all biological sciences are listed here; the list could be much longer.

Ecology is a branch of biology, the study of the relationships of organisms with each other and their environment. This section concerns not only environmental factors, its physical essence, chemical composition, but also its pollution, violation IVF cycle.

Ernest Haeckel in 1866 he came up with a special name for this scientific direction. The branch of biology that studies the relationships of organisms, their interaction not only with each other, but also with the environment, is called applied ecology.

It belongs to the branch of biology and is an applied science that studies the mechanisms of human destruction of the biosphere and ways to prevent environmental disasters. It differs from other biological fields in that scientists do not have to learn or study something new, but use existing techniques and developments in practice.

It is the application of practical methods that distinguishes applied. Thus, we have answered the question of which biological science is practical or applied.

To achieve real goals in practice, we need a customer and an investor. Often large projects and their implementation are financed by the state: conservation endangered species, rational waste disposal and minimizing environmental pollution. Applied ecology It is generally accepted because it is inextricably linked with all processes occurring with living beings.

Classification

Any broad scientific field involves division into separate branches. The classification of biological sciences is carried out on the basis of several characteristics. Depending on the subject or object of study, the following are distinguished:

• zoology,
• botany,
• microbiology and others.

According to the level at which it is considered living matter:

• cytology,
• histology,
• molecular biology and others.

According to generalized properties of organisms:

• biochemistry,
• genetics,
• ecology and others.

Classification of biological sciences does not mean that they belong entirely to a particular area; each is closely interconnected with the others. For example, it is impossible to study cells without knowledge of the biochemical processes occurring in them.

Interesting! Taxonomy of modern fungi (a mushroom) is neither a plant nor a living thing. The mushroom is classified as a separate type of living organisms, so completely different methods are used to study it. It falls under the jurisdiction of mycology, a branch of biology.

Unique method

Tissue culture – This is a method that allows tissues, as well as their cells, to be grown outside the body. In theory, it was proposed back in 1874 by A.E. Golubev, and in practice it was applied only in 1885 by I.P. Skvortsov. Then this method was improved and developed.

Growing tissue outside the body- An example of a cell culture method.

The essence of the technique is this: a small piece of the desired tissue of a particular organism is taken and placed in a specially prepared nutrient medium. The process takes place under sterile conditions and at optimal temperatures. After some time, the tissue begins to transition from a calm state to a normal one, with division, nutrition and excretion of waste products. Being in such an environment, tissue can be generated at a tremendous speed, but the solution must be changed on time, because a polluted environment threatens to crush the cells and cause their death.

What biology studies using the method tissue culture. The technology is mainly used to prove theories not only in biology, but also in medicine. This is how one of the complex processes was studied - mitosis. Cell division was studied during embryonic development in birds and mammals. There are several diseases that can only be confirmed using this method, for example, an incorrect number of chromosomes in a person. The well-known vaccines against polio, smallpox or measles were developed using tissue culture. This is an amazing approach. It is also widely used in perfumery.

The creation of organs or their parts is not yet widespread due to ethical standards. In addition, this technology is expensive. Such advanced techniques are in demand in many fields of science.

Interesting! Plants such as gerbera, orchid, ginseng and potatoes are propagated by tissue culture.

Sections

Morphology in biology – one of the fields that studies the structure of organisms. It has two main sections: endonomy and anatomy. The first is engaged in the study of external signs of a living creature, and the second – internal. What morphology studies in the section of endonomy: the criteria by which organisms are divided into species. Classification is carried out according to appearance, shape, size, color and other characteristics.

For a long time, they remained the only determining factors, and the internal structure was not taken into account. Later it turned out that individuals of one biological species can be divided into males and females, a new concept has appeared - sexual dimorphism.

Anatomy studies the internal structure above the cellular level. Based on the data obtained, species are systematized into groups, which made it possible to identify two main groups of organs: analogous, that is, the same in all species, and homologous. The first includes parts of the body that are similar in function, but have different origins, and the second - different origins, but the same functions. Example homologous– forelimbs of mammals and wings of birds.

Biology - the science of living nature

Unified State Exam Biology 1.1. Biology as a science, methods of knowledge of living nature

Conclusion

The set of disciplines is of great importance for the further development of almost all areas of human activity. Knowledge of the laws of nature and the structure of organisms helps to improve the quality of our lives: improve treatment methods, produce new medicines, cosmetics, improve the quality of food, keep the environment clean and much more.

Biology (from the Greek bios - life and logos - word, doctrine), the totality of sciences about living nature - about the huge variety of extinct and now living creatures inhabiting the Earth, their structure and functions, origin, distribution and development, connections with each other and with inanimate nature. Biology establishes general and particular patterns inherent in life in all its manifestations and properties (metabolism, reproduction, heredity, variability, adaptability, growth, mobility, etc.).

The first systematic attempts to understand living nature were made by ancient doctors and philosophers (Hippocrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Galen). Their works, continued during the Renaissance, laid the foundation for botany and zoology, as well as human anatomy and physiology (Vesalius and others). In the 17th - 18th centuries. Experimental methods are penetrating biology. Based on quantitative measurements and the application of the laws of hydraulics, the mechanism of blood circulation was discovered (W. Harvey, 1628). The invention of the microscope expanded the boundaries of the known world of living beings and deepened the understanding of their structure. One of the main achievements of this era is the creation of a system for classifying plants and animals (C. Linnaeus, 1735). At the same time, speculative theories about the development and properties of living beings (spontaneous generation, preformation, etc.) prevailed. In the 19th century As a result of the sharply increased number of biological objects being studied (new methods, expeditions to tropical and inaccessible areas of the Earth, etc.), the accumulation and differentiation of knowledge, many special biological sciences were formed. Thus, botany and zoology are divided into sections that study individual systematic groups, embryology, histology, microbiology, paleontology, biogeography, etc. are developed. Among the achievements of biology are cell theory (T. Schwann, 1839), the discovery of patterns of heredity (G. Mendel, 1865 ). The evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin (1859) led to fundamental changes in biology. For biology of the 20th century. There are two interrelated trends. On the one hand, an idea was formed about qualitatively different levels of organization of living nature: molecular (molecular biology, biochemistry and other sciences, united by the concept of physicochemical biology), cellular (cytology), organismal (anatomy, physiology, embryology), population-species ( ecology, biogeography). On the other hand, the desire for a holistic, synthetic knowledge of living nature has led to the progress of sciences that study certain properties of living nature at all structural levels of its organization (genetics, systematics, evolutionary teaching, etc.). Amazing successes since the 50s. achieved by molecular biology, which revealed the chemical basis of heredity (DNA structure, genetic code, matrix principle of biopolymer synthesis). The doctrine of the biosphere (V.I. Vernadsky) revealed the scale of the geochemical activity of living organisms and their inextricable connection with inanimate nature. Practical significance of biological research and methods (incl. including genetic engineering, biotechnology) for medicine, agriculture, industry, wise use of natural resources and nature conservation, as well as the penetration of ideas and methods of the exact sciences into these studies have advanced biology from the middle. 20th century to the forefront of natural science.

Biology(from the Greek bios - life, logos - word, science) is a complex of sciences about living nature.

The subject of biology is all manifestations of life: the structure and functions of living beings, their diversity, origin and development, as well as interaction with the environment. The main task of biology as a science is to interpret all phenomena of living nature on a scientific basis, taking into account that the whole organism has properties that are fundamentally different from its components.

Biology studies all aspects of life, in particular the structure, functioning, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms on Earth, classifies and describes living things, the origin of their species, and their interactions with each other and with the environment.

Modern biology is based on 5 fundamental principles:

1. cell theory
2. evolution
3. genetics
4. homeostasis
5. energy

Biological Sciences

Currently, biology includes a number of sciences that can be systematized according to the following criteria: subject and predominant methods research and on the subject being studied level of organization of living nature.

By subject of researchI biological sciences are divided into bacteriology, botany, virology, zoology, mycology.

Botany is a biological science that comprehensively studies plants and the Earth's vegetation cover.

Zoology - a branch of biology, the science of the diversity, structure, life activity, distribution and relationship of animals with their environment, their origin and development.

Bacteriology - biological science that studies the structure and activity of bacteria, as well as their role in nature.

Virology - biological science that studies viruses.

Main object mycology are mushrooms, their structure and features of life.

Lichenology - biological science that studies lichens.

Bacteriology, virology and some aspects of mycology are often discussed as part of microbiology - section of biology, the science of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and microscopic fungi).

Taxonomy, or taxonomy, - biological science that describes and classifies into groups all living and extinct creatures.

In turn, each of the listed biological sciences is divided into biochemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, embryology, genetics and systematics (plants, animals or microorganisms). Biochemistry is the science of the chemical composition of living matter, the chemical processes occurring in living organisms and underlying their life activity.

Morphology - biological science that studies the form and structure of organisms, as well as the patterns of their development. In a broad sense, it includes cytology, anatomy, histology and embryology. Distinguish between the morphology of animals and plants.

Anatomy is a branch of biology (more precisely, morphology), a science that studies the internal structure and shape of individual organs, systems and the organism as a whole. Plant anatomy is considered as part of botany, animal anatomy is considered as part of zoology, and human anatomy is a separate science.

Physiology - biological science that studies the life processes of plant and animal organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells. There is physiology of plants, animals and humans.

Embryology(developmental biology)- a branch of biology, the science of the individual development of an organism, including the development of the embryo.

Object genetics are the laws of heredity and variability. Currently, it is one of the most dynamically developing biological sciences.

By the level of organization of living nature being studied distinguish molecular biology, cytology, histology, organology, biology of organisms and supraorganismal systems.

Molecular biology is one of the youngest branches of biology, a science that studies, in particular, the organization of hereditary information and protein biosynthesis.

Cytology, or cell biology,- biological science, the object of study of which is the cells of both unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Histology - biological science, a branch of morphology, the object of which is the structure of tissues of plants and animals.

To the sphere organology include the morphology, anatomy and physiology of various organs and their systems. Organismal biology includes all sciences that deal with living organisms, e.g. ethology- the science of behavior of organisms.

The biology of supraorganismal systems is divided into biogeography and ecology. Studies the distribution of living organisms biogeography, whereas ecology - organization and functioning of supraorganismal systems at various levels: populations, biocenoses (communities), biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere.

By prevailing research methods One can distinguish descriptive (for example, morphology), experimental (for example, physiology) and theoretical biology. Identifying and explaining the patterns of structure, functioning and development of living nature at various levels of its organization is a task general biology. It includes biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology, embryology, genetics, ecology, evolutionary science and anthropology. Evolutionary doctrine studies the causes, driving forces, mechanisms and general patterns of evolution of living organisms. One of its sections is paleontology- a science whose subject is the fossil remains of living organisms. Anthropology- a section of general biology, the science of the origin and development of humans as a biological species, as well as the diversity of modern human populations and the patterns of their interaction. Applied aspects of biology are included in the field of biotechnology, breeding and other rapidly developing sciences. Biotechnology is the biological science that studies the use of living organisms and biological processes in production. It is widely used in the food (baking, cheese-making, brewing, etc.) and pharmaceutical industries (production of antibiotics, vitamins), for water purification, etc. Selection- the science of methods for creating breeds of domestic animals, varieties of cultivated plants and strains of microorganisms with properties necessary for humans. Selection is also understood as the process of changing living organisms, carried out by humans for their needs.

The progress of biology is closely related to the successes of other natural and exact sciences, such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, etc. For example, microscopy, ultrasound (ultrasound), tomography and other methods of biology are based on physical laws, and the study of the structure of biological molecules and processes occurring in living systems would be impossible without the use of chemical and physical methods. The use of mathematical methods makes it possible, on the one hand, to identify the presence of a natural connection between objects or phenomena, to confirm the reliability of the results obtained, and on the other hand, to model a phenomenon or process. Recently, computer methods, such as modeling, have become increasingly important in biology. At the intersection of biology and other sciences, a number of new sciences arose, such as biophysics, biochemistry, bionics, etc.

The role of biology in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world

At the stage of its formation, biology did not yet exist separately from other natural sciences and was limited only to observation, study, description and classification of representatives of the animal and plant world, i.e. it was a descriptive science. However, this did not prevent the ancient naturalists Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) and Theophrastus (real name Tirtham, 372-287 BC). BC) to make a significant contribution to the development of ideas about the structure of the human body and animals, as well as the biological diversity of animals and plants, thereby laying the foundations of human anatomy and physiology, zoology and botany. The deepening of knowledge about living nature and the systematization of previously accumulated facts, which occurred in the 16th-18th centuries, culminated in the introduction of binary nomenclature and the creation of a harmonious taxonomy of plants (C. Linnaeus) and animals (J.-B. Lamarck). The description of a significant number of species with similar morphological characteristics, as well as paleontological finds, became prerequisites for the development of ideas about the origin of species and the paths of historical development of the organic world. Thus, the experiments of F. Redi, L. Spallanzani and L. Pasteur in the 17th-19th centuries refuted the hypothesis of spontaneous generation, put forward by Aristotle and prevalent in the Middle Ages, and the theory of biochemical evolution by A.I. Oparin and J. Haldane, brilliantly confirmed by S. Miller and G. Yuri, allowed us to answer the question about the origin of all living things. If the very process of the emergence of living things from non-living components and its evolution in themselves no longer raise doubts, then the mechanisms, paths and directions of the historical development of the organic world are still not fully understood, since neither of the two main competing theories of evolution (synthetic theory evolution, created on the basis of the theory of Charles Darwin, and the theory of J.-B. Lamarck) still cannot provide comprehensive evidence. The use of microscopy and other methods of related sciences, due to progress in the field of other natural sciences, as well as the introduction of experimental practice, allowed the German scientists T. Schwann and M. Schleiden to formulate a cell theory back in the 19th century, later supplemented by R. Virchow and K. Baer. It became the most important generalization in biology, which formed the cornerstone of modern ideas about the unity of the organic world. The discovery of patterns of transmission of hereditary information by the Czech monk G. Mendel served as an impetus for the further rapid development of biology in the 20th-21st centuries and led not only to the discovery of the universal carrier of heredity - DNA, but also the genetic code, as well as the fundamental mechanisms of control, reading and variability of hereditary information . The development of ideas about the environment led to the emergence of such a science as ecology, and wording teachings about the biosphere as a complex multi-component planetary system of interconnected huge biological complexes, as well as chemical and geological processes occurring on Earth (V.I. Vernadsky), which ultimately makes it possible to at least to a small extent reduce the negative consequences of human economic activity. Thus, biology played an important role in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world.

Methods for studying living objects

Like any other science, biology has its own arsenal of methods. In addition to the scientific method of cognition used in other fields, methods such as historical, comparative-descriptive, etc. are widely used in biology.

Scientific method cognition includes observation, formulation of hypotheses, experiment, modeling, analysis of results and derivation of general patterns.

Observation- this is the purposeful perception of objects and phenomena using the senses or instruments, determined by the task of the activity. The main condition for scientific observation is its objectivity, i.e. the ability to verify the obtained data through repeated observation or the use of other research methods, such as experiment. The facts obtained as a result of observation are called data. They can be like quality(describing smell, taste, color, shape, etc.), and quantitative, Moreover, quantitative data is more accurate than qualitative data.

Based on observational data, a hypothesis is formulated - a conjectural judgment about the natural connection of phenomena. The hypothesis is tested in a series of experiments.

An experiment is called a scientifically conducted experiment, observation of the phenomenon being studied under controlled conditions, allowing one to identify the characteristics of a given object or phenomenon. The highest form of experiment is modeling - the study of any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Essentially, this is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge: any method of scientific research, both theoretical and experimental, is based on the idea of ​​modeling. The experimental and simulation results are subject to careful analysis.

Analysis called a method of scientific research by decomposing an object into its component parts or mentally dismembering an object through logical abstraction. Analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis.

Synthesis is a method of studying a subject in its integrity, in the unity and interconnection of its parts. As a result of analysis and synthesis, the most successful research hypothesis becomes a working hypothesis, and if it is able to withstand attempts to refute it and still successfully predicts previously unexplained facts and relationships, then it can become theory.

Under theory understand a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic idea of ​​the patterns and essential connections of reality. The general direction of scientific research is to achieve higher levels of predictability. If no facts can change a theory, and the deviations from it that occur are regular and predictable, then it can be elevated to the rank of law- a necessary, essential, stable, repeating relationship between phenomena in nature. As the body of knowledge increases and research methods improve, hypotheses and even well-established theories can be challenged, modified, and even rejected, since scientific knowledge itself is dynamic in nature and constantly subject to critical reinterpretation.

The historical method reveals the patterns of the appearance and development of organisms, the formation of their structure and function. In a number of cases, with the help of this method, hypotheses and theories that were previously considered false gain new life. This, for example, happened with Darwin's assumptions about the nature of signal transmission in a plant in response to environmental influences. The comparative-descriptive method involves conducting an anatomical and morphological analysis of the objects of study. It underlies the classification of organisms, identifying patterns of emergence and development of various forms of life.

Monitoring is a system of measures for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the object under study, in particular the biosphere. Carrying out observations and experiments often requires the use of special equipment, such as microscopes, centrifuges, spectrophotometers, etc. Microscopy is widely used in zoology, botany, human anatomy, histology, cytology, genetics, embryology, paleontology, ecology and other branches of biology. It allows you to study the fine structure of objects using light, electron, X-ray and other types of microscopes.

A light microscope consists of optical and mechanical parts. Optical parts are involved in constructing an image, and mechanical parts are used for ease of use of optical parts. The overall magnification of a microscope is determined by the formula: objective magnification x eyepiece magnification = microscope magnification.

For example, if the lens magnifies the object by 8 times and the eyepiece by 7, then the total magnification of the microscope is 56.

Differential centrifugation, or fractionation, makes it possible to separate particles according to their size and density under the influence of centrifugal force, which is actively used in studying the structure of biological molecules and cells.

Basic levels of organization of living nature

1. Molecular genetic. The most important tasks of biology at this stage are the study of the mechanisms of transmission of genetic information, heredity and variability.
2. Cellular level. The elementary unit of the cellular level of organization is the cell, and the elementary phenomenon is the reactions of cellular metabolism.
3. Tissue level. This level is represented by tissues that unite cells of a certain structure, size, location and similar functions. Tissues arose during historical development along with multicellularity. In multicellular organisms, they are formed during ontogenesis as a consequence of cell differentiation.
4. Organ level. The organ level is represented by the organs of organisms. In protozoa, digestion, respiration, circulation of substances, excretion, movement and reproduction are carried out due to various organelles. More advanced organisms have organ systems. In plants and animals, organs are formed from different amounts of tissue.
5. Organismic level. The elementary unit of this level is the individual in its individual development, or ontogenesis, therefore the organismal level is also called ontogenetic. An elementary phenomenon at this level is changes in the body in its individual development.
6. Population-species level. A population is a collection of individuals of the same species, freely interbreeding with each other and living separately from other similar groups of individuals. In populations there is a free exchange of hereditary information and its transmission to descendants. A population is an elementary unit of the population-species level, and the elementary phenomenon in this case is evolutionary transformations, such as mutations and natural selection.
7. Biogeocenotic level. Biogeocenosis is a historically established community of populations of different species, interconnected with each other and the environment by metabolism and energy. Biogeocenoses are elementary systems in which the material and energy cycle occurs, determined by the vital activity of organisms. Biogeocenoses themselves are elementary units of a given level, while elementary phenomena are flows of energy and cycles of substances in them. Biogeocenoses make up the biosphere and determine all the processes occurring in it.
8. Biosphere level. The biosphere is the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them. The biosphere is the highest level of organization of life on the planet. This shell covers the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper layer of the lithosphere. The biosphere, like all other biological systems, is dynamic and is actively transformed by living beings. It itself is an elementary unit of the biosphere level, and the processes of circulation of substances and energy that occur with the participation of living organisms are considered as an elementary phenomenon.

As mentioned above, each of the levels of organization of living matter makes its contribution to a single evolutionary process: in the cell, not only the embedded hereditary information is reproduced, but also its change occurs, which leads to the emergence of new combinations of characteristics and properties of the organism, which in turn are subject to the action of natural selection at the population-species level, etc.

Biology is the science of life. Currently, it represents a complex of sciences about living nature. The object of study of biology is living organisms - plants and animals. and study the diversity of species, body structure and organ functions, development, distribution, their communities, evolution.

Primitive man began to accumulate the first information about living organisms. Living organisms provided him with food, material for clothing and housing. Already at that time, a person could not do without knowledge about the properties of plants, the places where they grow, the timing of ripening of fruits and seeds, the habitats and habits of the animals he hunted, predators and poisonous animals that could threaten his life.

Thus, information about living organisms gradually accumulated. The domestication of animals and the beginning of plant cultivation required more in-depth knowledge of living organisms.

First Founders

Significant factual material about living organisms was collected by the great physician of Greece - Hippocrates (460-377 BC). He collected information about the structure of animals and humans, and gave a description of bones, muscles, tendons, the brain and spinal cord.

The first great work zoology belongs to the Greek naturalist Aristotle (384-322 BC). He described more than 500 species of animals. Aristotle was interested in the structure and lifestyle of animals; he laid the foundations of zoology.

The first work on systematizing knowledge about plants ( botany) was made by Theophrastus (372-287 BC).

Ancient science owes the expansion of knowledge about the structure of the human body (anatomy) to the doctor Galen (130-200 BC), who performed autopsies on monkeys and pigs. His works influenced natural science and medicine for several centuries.

During the Middle Ages, under the yoke of the church, science developed very slowly. An important milestone in the development of science was the Renaissance, which began in the 15th century. Already in the 18th century. Botany, zoology, human anatomy, and physiology developed as independent sciences.

Major milestones in the study of the organic world

Gradually, information accumulated about the diversity of species, the structure of the body of animals and humans, individual development, and the functions of organs of plants and animals. Throughout the centuries-old history of biology, the largest milestones in the study of the organic world can be called:

• Introduction of the principles of systematics proposed by K. Linnaeus;
• invention of the microscope;
• creation of cell theory by T. Schwann;
• approval of the evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin;
• discovery by G. Mendel of the basic laws of heredity;
• application of an electron microscope for biological research;
• deciphering the genetic code;
• creation of the doctrine of the biosphere.

To date, science knows about 1,500,000 species of animals and about 500,000 species of plants. The study of the diversity of plants and animals, the features of their structure and life activity is of great importance. Biological sciences are the basis for the development of crop production, animal husbandry, medicine, bionics, and biotechnology.

One of the oldest biological sciences is human anatomy and physiology, which form the theoretical foundation of medicine. Every person should have an understanding of the structure and functions of their body in order to be able to provide first aid if necessary, consciously take care of their health and follow hygiene rules.

Over the centuries, botany, zoology, anatomy, and physiology have been developed by scientists as independent, isolated sciences. Only in the 19th century. patterns were discovered that are common to all living beings. This is how sciences emerged that study the general laws of life. These include:

• Cytology is the science of cells;
• genetics - the science of variability and heredity;
• ecology - the science of the relationship of an organism with the environment and in communities of organisms;
• Darwinism - the science of the evolution of the organic world and others.

In the curriculum they form the subject of general biology.