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Personality- a systemic quality that an individual acquires in interaction with the social environment.

This interaction occurs in two leading forms - communication And joint activities.

There are three main components in the structure of personality manifestations.

1) an individual is a psychosomatic organization of a personality, making it a representative of the human race.

2) persona - socially-typical formations of personality, caused by the influence of the social environment that is similar to most people.

3) individuality - a peculiar combination of characteristics that distinguishes one person from another.

2. Personality components:

Temperament- features of the neurodynamic organization of the individual.

Need-motivational sphere includes: needs (a person’s needs for life and development), motives (related to the satisfaction of certain needs) and orientation (this is a system of stable preferences and motives that orient the dynamics of a person’s development and set trends in his behavior).

Emotional-volitional sphere

Cognitive-cognitive sphere

Character- a set of stable, predominantly formed intravital properties.

Capabilities- a combination of mental properties that are a condition for performing one or more types of activity.

3. Key personality traits (system-forming):

Emotionality- a set of personality qualities that determine the dynamics of the emergence, course and cessation of emotional states, sensitivity to emotional situations.

Activity- a personality characteristic that determines the intensity, duration, frequency and variety of actions or activities of any kind performed.

Self-regulation- a systemic characteristic that reflects an individual’s ability to function sustainably in various conditions of life (regulation of one’s condition, behavior of activities).

Inducement- motivational component of character.

4.Theories of personality.

a) Trait theory. Psychologists often characterize people based on their traits. Personality traits are generalized characteristics, a number of interrelated psychological characteristics (emotionality, dominance, morality). In psychology, various personality typologies are used, which represent typological descriptions (psychological portraits) in terms of traits - (pessimist, optimist, introvert, etc.).

b) Individual construct theory. (according to Kelly)

Personality is a system of individual constructs. Constructs are means, ways of interpreting and interpreting the world. They have the form of bipolar concepts (good-bad, good-evil, etc.), but they represent personal inventions, interpretations imposed by the individual on reality. The functioning of the construct includes generalization, discrimination, prediction, and behavior control.

In practical terms, Kelly's approach allows us to determine the vision of the situation from the position of the person being examined and adjust his behavior, attitudes and needs by changing the system of psychological constructs.

The two approaches to describing personality are statistical in nature.

c) Freud's personality structure - is a dynamic model. 3 Personality contains three instances:

IT (ID)- a set of unconscious needs and desires that guide our behavior, often in addition to consciousness. This contains repressed desires, which sometimes manifest themselves in dreams, mistakes, and slips of the tongue. Main components:

libido - positive loving sexual impulses;

Thanatos - destructive aggressive impulses.

This authority is formed in early childhood; many problems of personality development lie in this area.

I (EGO)- the conscious substance of the personality, functioning in accordance with the principles of reality. It includes:

1) cognitive and executive functions;

2) will and actual goals.

This authority regulates the interaction process " it " And " superego ».

She dominates impulses, but sleeps at night, retaining the ability to censor dreams.

Superego- social prohibitions and norms, unconscious actions that force the “I” to avoid destructive drives emanating from “it”.

This authority is determined by the influence of culture, which opposes the biological drives of the “it”.

As a result, the substance “I” is the arena of constant struggle between the “super-ego” and “it”.

G) Theory of potentials. Personality can be characterized by its basic potentials.

Informative- determined by the volume and quality of information available to the individual.

Moral- acquired by the individual in the process of socialization - these are moral and ethical standards, life goals, beliefs, aspirations (the unity of psychological and ideological aspects in the consciousness and self-awareness of the individual).

Creative- the available repertoire of skills and abilities, abilities to act (can be creative, destructive, productive (reproductive), as well as the measure of their implementation in a certain field of activity or communication.

Communicative- the degree of sociability, the nature and strength of contacts established by an individual with other people.

Aesthetic- the level and intensity of the individual’s artistic needs and how she satisfies them. It is realized in creativity and in the consumption of works of art.

5. The concept of directionality.

One of the systemic characteristics of personality is focus- this is a set of the most important target programs that determine the semantic unity of the active and purposeful behavior of the individual. In this characteristic, two fundamental interrelated needs can be distinguished:

a) to be a person (the need for personalization) - ensures active inclusion in social connections and is conditioned by these connections, social relations.

b) in self-realization - manifests itself in the desire to realize one’s life potential (abilities, inclinations, supply of vital energy).

The focus includes "I-concept". The psychological term “I” in Russian is ambiguous. On the one hand, “I” is, as already mentioned, the result of a person’s isolation of himself from the environment, which allows him to feel and experience his own physical and mental states, to recognize himself as a subject of activity. On the other hand, a person’s own “I” is also an object of self-knowledge for him.

In this case, a person’s “I” includes his self-perception and self-understanding. In other words, how a given person sees himself and how he interprets his actions constitutes the “I”-concept of personality. This is a kind of psychology and philosophy of one’s own “I”. In accordance with his “I”-concept, a person carries out his activities. Therefore, a person’s behavior is always logical from his point of view, although it may not seem logical to other people.

Each of us not only sees himself in a certain way, but also evaluates himself and his behavior. This evaluative aspect of the “I” is called self-esteem.

According to research (Taylor, 1994), people with high self-esteem think well of themselves, set appropriate goals for themselves, take into account the opinions of other people to increase their success, and cope well with difficult situations. People with low self-esteem, on the other hand, do not think very well of themselves, often choose unrealistic goals or avoid any goals altogether, are pessimistic about the future, and react hostilely to criticism or other types of negative feedback.

In addition to general self-esteem, each person has specific, partial, assessments of his abilities in certain areas. For example, a student may have high self-esteem in general, but at the same time know that it is difficult for him to carry on a conversation with unfamiliar people and is not very musical. Another student may have low self-esteem in general but know that he is a good goalkeeper for the department's soccer team.

Research shows that a person's level of self-esteem is related to the cognitive aspects of the self-concept (Franza, 1996). Thus, people with low self-esteem have a less clearly defined and stable self-concept than people with high self-esteem. The self-concept of people with low self-esteem appears to be less complex and less flexible. There is evidence that it is self-confidence is the reason for highself-esteem, and not vice versa (i.e., the statement that high self-esteem generates a higher level of self-confidence is incorrect). So, we can assume that the first component you-strong self-esteem is self-knowledge or at least a reflection on knowing oneself. Another determinant of the level of calciumassessments, Apparently, it may be, as Franzoi notes, spo-a way by which an individual “organizes” positive and negative information about himself in memory. This is not only about the fact that the entire amount of positive information is compared with the amount of negative information, which generally determines the level of self-esteem. The main thing here is how this knowledge about oneself is “organized.” Some individuals tend to divide information about themselves into separate positive and negative categories (“I am good” and, conversely, “I am bad”). Others tend to form mental categories that contain a mixture of positive and negative information about themselves. Research shows that if people tend to divide information about themselves within their “I” concept into positive and negative and the first is more often recalled, then this cognitive style increases their self-esteem and reduces the level of depression. For those people for whom the positive aspects of the self are more important, dividing information about themselves into positive and negative may be part of the process that ultimately eliminates negative information from memory, which in turn removes such information from the self. -concepts On the other hand, for people who find the negative aspects of the self more important, it is psychologically more acceptable to mix the positive and negative aspects of the self together in their minds.

A person who, thanks to work, emerges from the animal world and develops in society, carries out joint activities with other people and communicates with them, becomes a person, a subject of knowledge and active transformation of the material world, society and himself.

A person is born into the world already a human being. This statement only at first glance seems to be a truth that does not require proof. The fact is that the genes of the human embryo contain natural prerequisites for the development of actually human characteristics and qualities. The configuration of a newborn’s body presupposes the possibility of walking upright, the structure of the brain provides the possibility of developing intelligence, the structure of the hand provides the prospect of using tools, etc., and in this way a baby - already a person in terms of the sum of its capabilities - differs from a baby animal. In this way, the fact that the baby belongs to the human race is proven, which is fixed in the concept of an individual (in contrast to a baby animal, which is called an individual immediately after birth and until the end of its life). In the concept “ individual” embodies a person’s tribal affiliation. Individual can be considered both a newborn and an adult at the stage of savagery, and a highly educated resident of a civilized country.

Therefore, when we say of a particular person that he is an individual, we are essentially saying that he is potentially a person. Having been born as an individual, a person gradually acquires a special social quality and becomes a personality. Even in childhood, the individual is included in the historically established system of social relations, which he finds already ready. The further development of a person in society creates such an interweaving of relationships that shapes him as a person, i.e. as a real person, not only not like others, but also not like them, acting, thinking, suffering, included in social connections as a member of society, a participant in the historical process.

Personality in psychology, it denotes a systemic (social) quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the degree of representation of social relations in the individual.

So, personality can only be understood in a system of stable interpersonal connections, which are mediated by the content, values, and meaning of joint activity for each of the participants. These interpersonal connections are manifested in specific individual properties and actions of people, forming a special quality of the group activity itself.

The personality of each person is endowed only with its own inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality, constituting the uniqueness of a person, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), in abilities, individual style of activity, etc. There are no two identical people with the same combination of these psychological characteristics - a person’s personality is unique in its individuality.

Just as the concepts of “individual” and “personality” are not identical, personality and individuality, in turn, form unity, but not identity. The ability to add and multiply large numbers very quickly “in the mind”, thoughtfulness, the habit of biting nails and other characteristics of a person act as traits of his individuality, but are not necessarily included in the characteristics of his personality, if only because they may not be represented in forms activities and communications that are essential to the group in which the individual possessing these traits is included. If personality traits are not represented in the system of interpersonal relationships, then they turn out to be insignificant for characterizing the individual’s personality and do not receive conditions for development. The individual characteristics of a person remain “mute” until a certain time, until they become necessary in the system of interpersonal relationships, the subject of which will be this person as an individual.

The problem of the relationship between the biological (natural) and social principles in the structure of a person’s personality is one of the most complex and controversial in modern psychology. A prominent place is occupied by theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed under the influence of two factors - biological and social. The idea was put forward that the entire human personality is divided into an “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization. “ Endopsychics“as a substructure of personality expresses the internal mechanism of the human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of a person. “ Exopsyche” is determined by a person’s attitude to the external environment. “Endopsychia” includes such traits as receptivity, characteristics of memory, thinking and imagination, the ability to exert volition, impulsiveness, etc., and “exopsychia” is a person’s system of relationships and his experience, i.e. interests, inclinations, ideals, prevailing feelings, formed knowledge, etc.

How should we approach this concept of two factors? Natural organic aspects and traits exist in the structure of the individuality of the human personality as its socially conditioned elements. The natural (anatomical, physiological and other qualities) and the social form a unity and cannot be mechanically opposed to each other as independent substructures of the personality. So, recognizing the role of the natural, biological, and social in the structure of individuality, it is impossible to distinguish biological substructures in the human personality, in which they already exist in a transformed form.

Returning to the question of understanding the essence of personality, it is necessary to dwell on the structure of personality when it is considered as a “supersensible” systemic quality of an individual. Considering personality in the system of subjective relations, three types of subsystems of an individual’s personal existence are distinguished (or three aspects of the interpretation of personality). The first aspect to consider is intra-individual subsystem: personality is interpreted as a property inherent in the subject himself; the personal turns out to be immersed in the internal space of the individual’s existence. Second aspect - interindividual personal subsystem, when the sphere of its definition and existence becomes the “space of interindividual connections.” The third aspect of consideration is meta-individual personal subsystem. Here attention is drawn to the impact that, voluntarily or unwittingly, an individual has on other people. Personality is perceived from a new angle: its most important characteristics, which were tried to be seen in the qualities of an individual, are proposed to be looked for not only in himself, but also in other people. Continuing in other people, with the death of the individual the personality does not completely die. The individual, as the bearer of personality, dies, but, personalized in other people, continues to live. In the words “he lives in us even after death” there is neither mysticism nor pure metaphor, it is a statement of the fact of the ideal representation of the individual after his material disappearance.

Of course, a personality can be characterized only in the unity of all three proposed aspects of consideration: its individuality, representation in the system of interpersonal relationships and, finally, in other people.

If, when deciding why a person becomes more active, we analyze the essence of needs, which express the state of need for something or someone, leading to activity, then in order to determine what activity will result in, it is necessary to analyze what determines its direction, where and what this activity is aimed at.

A set of stable motives that guide an individual’s activity and are relatively independent of existing situations is called orientation of a person's personality. The main role of personality orientation belongs to conscious motives.

Interest- a motive that promotes orientation in any area, familiarization with new facts, and a more complete and profound reflection of reality. Subjectively - for the individual - interest is revealed in the positive emotional tone that the process of cognition acquires, in the desire to become more deeply acquainted with the object, to learn even more about it, to understand it.

Thus, interests act as a constant incentive mechanism for cognition.

Interests are an important aspect of motivation for an individual’s activity, but not the only one. An essential motive for behavior is beliefs.

Beliefs- this is a system of individual motives that encourages her to act in accordance with her views, principles, and worldview. Contents of needs, acting in the form of beliefs, is knowledge about the surrounding world of nature and society, their certain understanding. When this knowledge forms an orderly and internally organized system of views (philosophical, aesthetic, ethical, natural science, etc.), they can be considered as a worldview.

The presence of beliefs covering a wide range of issues in the field of literature, art, social life, and industrial activity indicates a high level of activity of a person’s personality.

Interacting and communicating with people, a person distinguishes himself from the environment, feels himself to be the subject of his physical and mental states, actions and processes, acts for himself as “I”, opposed to “others” and at the same time inextricably linked with him.

The experience of having a “I” is the result of a long process of personality development that begins in infancy and which is referred to as the “discovery of the “I.” A one-year-old child begins to realize the differences between the sensations of his own body and those sensations that are caused by objects located outside. Then, at the age of 2-3 years, the child separates the process that gives him pleasure and the result of his own actions with objects from the objective actions of adults, presenting the latter with demands: “I myself!” For the first time, he begins to realize himself as the subject of his own actions and deeds (a personal pronoun appears in the child’s speech), not only distinguishing himself from the environment, but also opposing himself to everyone else (“This is mine, this is not yours!”).

It is known that in adolescence and adolescence, the desire for self-perception, to understand one’s place in life and oneself as a subject of relationships with others intensifies. Associated with this is the formation of self-awareness. Senior schoolchildren develop an image of their own “I”. The image of “I” is a relatively stable, not always conscious, experienced as a unique system of an individual’s ideas about himself, on the basis of which he builds his interaction with others. The image of “I” thereby fits into the structure of the personality. It acts as an attitude towards oneself. Like any attitude, the image of “I” includes three components.

Firstly, cognitive component: idea of ​​one’s abilities, appearance, social significance, etc.

Secondly, emotional-evaluative component: self-respect, self-criticism, selfishness, self-deprecation, etc.

Third - behavioral(strong-willed): the desire to be understood, to win sympathy, to increase one’s status, or the desire to remain unnoticed, to evade evaluation and criticism, to hide one’s shortcomings, etc.

Image of “I”- stable, not always conscious, experienced as a unique system of an individual’s ideas about himself, on the basis of which he builds his interaction with others.

The image of “I” is both a prerequisite and a consequence of social interaction. In fact, psychologists record in a person not just one image of his “I”, but many successive “I-images”, alternately coming to the forefront of self-awareness and then losing their meaning in a given situation of social interaction. “I-image” is not a static, but a dynamic formation of an individual’s personality.

The “I-image” can be experienced as an idea of ​​oneself at the moment of the experience itself, usually referred to in psychology as the “real Self,” but it would probably be more correct to call it the momentary or “current Self” of the subject.

The “I-image” is at the same time the “ideal I” of the subject - what he should, in his opinion, become in order to meet the internal criteria of success.

Let us indicate another variant of the emergence of the “I-image” - the “fantastic I” - what the subject would like to become, if it turned out to be possible for him, how he would like to see himself. The construction of one’s fantastic “I” is characteristic not only of young men, but also of adults. When assessing the motivating significance of this “I-image,” it is important to know whether the individual’s objective understanding of his position and place in life has been replaced by his “fantastic self.” The predominance in the personality structure of fantastic ideas about oneself, not accompanied by actions that would contribute to the realization of the desired, disorganizes the activity and self-awareness of a person and in the end can severely traumatize him due to the obvious discrepancy between the desired and the actual.

The degree of adequacy of the “I-image” is clarified by studying one of its most important aspects—personal self-esteem.

Self-esteem- a person’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people. This is the most significant and most studied aspect of a person’s self-awareness in psychology. With the help of self-esteem, the behavior of an individual is regulated.

How does a person carry out self-esteem? K. Marx has a fair idea: a person first looks, as in a mirror, into another person. Only by treating the man Paul as one of his own kind does the man Peter begin to treat himself as a man. In other words, by learning the qualities of another person, a person receives the necessary information that allows him to develop his own assessment. In other words, a person is oriented toward a certain reference group (real or ideal), whose ideals are its ideals, interests are its interests, etc. d. In the process of communication, she constantly compares herself with the standard and, depending on the results of the check, appears satisfied with herself or dissatisfied. Too high or too low self-esteem can become an internal source of personality conflicts. Of course, this conflict can manifest itself in different ways.

Inflated self-esteem leads to the fact that a person tends to overestimate himself in situations that do not provide a reason for this. As a result, he often encounters opposition from others who reject his claims, becomes embittered, displays suspicion, suspiciousness and deliberate arrogance, aggression, and in the end may lose the necessary interpersonal contacts and become withdrawn.

Excessively low self-esteem may indicate the development of an inferiority complex, persistent self-doubt, refusal of initiative, indifference, self-blame and anxiety.

In order to understand a person, it is necessary to clearly imagine the action of the unconsciously developing forms of a person’s control over his behavior, to pay attention to the entire system of assessments with which a person characterizes himself and others, to see the dynamics of changes in these assessments.

General idea of ​​personality

The concept of “personality” is not purely psychological and is studied by all social sciences, including philosophy, sociology, pedagogy, etc. Before we begin to clarify what is meant by personality in psychology, it is necessary to determine how the concepts of “individual” relate "person", "personality". Human - This is a half biological, half social phenomenon, participating in socially beneficial activities. As is clear from Fig. 3.1, this is the most general concept considered. Being born as individuals, we differ from each other in individual characteristics: height, weight, eye color, hair color, body type, etc. Each of us, as a representative of a biological species, has certain innate characteristics, i.e. the structure of his body determines the possibility of walking upright, the structure of the brain ensures the development of intelligence, the structure of the hand implies the possibility of using tools, etc. All these features distinguish a human baby from a baby animal . The belonging of a particular person to the human race is fixed in the concept individual. Thus, individual is a biological phenomenon, a representative of Homo sapiens, with genetically transmitted properties.

Rice. 3.1. Correlation of the concepts man, individual, personality

and individuality

Being born as an individual, a person is included in the system of social relationships and processes, as a result of which he acquires a special social quality - he becomes personality. This happens because a person, being included in the system of public relations, acts as subject – the bearer of consciousness, which is formed and developed in the process of activity.

In turn, the developmental features of all these three levels characterize the uniqueness and originality of a particular person, determine his individuality ( Individuality: 1) the presence of properties and characteristics of mental processes, new formations of one person, distinguishing him from other people; 2) constant, stable difference ). Thus, the concept of “personality” characterizes one of the most significant levels of human organization, namely the features of its development as a social being.

Personality is a specific person, taken in the system of his stable socially conditioned psychological characteristics, which manifest themselves in social connections and relationships, determine his moral actions and are of significant importance for himself and those around him.

The famous psychologist A.V. Petrovsky proposed the following definition: Personality in psychology refers to a systemic (social) quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the degree of representation of social relations in the individual.

If we remember that a person, as a bearer of consciousness, which is formed and develops in the process of activity, acts as a subject, then: Personality is a person as a subject of socially useful activities and communication. As we see, the concept of “personality” in Russian psychology correlates with the social organization of a person. The question of the correlation between the biological and the social in personality is resolved by considering the existence of an “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization of the psyche in a person.

"Endopsyche" expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, including: receptivity, characteristics of memory, thinking and imagination, the ability to exert volition, impulsiveness, etc., it is biologically determined and, as is clear from Fig. 3.2 cannot be changed.

"Exopsyche" is determined by a person’s relationship to the external environment, to which a person can relate in one way or another; this is a person’s system of relationships and his experience, i.e. interests, inclinations, ideals, prevailing feelings, formed knowledge, etc. It is determined by the social factor and can be changed by the person himself in the process of self-education (Fig. 3.2).

The personality of each person is endowed only with its own inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality.

Rice. 3.2. Biosocial organization of personality

Personality structure

Answers to the question “What is a person’s personality?” Many of the world's leading psychologists have been searching for more than ten years. As we remember from topic 1, in psychology there is no single theory that would interpret mental phenomena in the same way. Over the course of a long time, all assumptions and hypotheses about the mechanisms and nature of personality development were formed into several basic theories: the analytical theory of K.G. Jung, humanistic theory, the authors of which are K. Rogers and A. Maslow, cognitive personality theory by J. Kelly, activity theory by S.L. Rubenstein and other researchers, behavioral and dispositive theories, and finally, psychodynamic theory, known as classical psychoanalysis, authored by the Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud. These theories define in their own way what constitutes a personality and what its structure is. One of the most popular and well-known is the idea of ​​S. Freud’s personality structure.

From the point of view of the founder of psychoanalysis, S. Freud, the structure of personality and its psyche has three components: Id, Ego and Superego. These parts are in constant interaction (Fig. 3.3).

1. "Id" ("It"). Primitive matter that is responsible for innate processes. This is the unconscious, which includes desires, pleasures and libido of a person. These are all the bad things that happened to a person in the past, and what he is not aware of.

2. "Ego" ("I"). Consciousness that follows reality. Develops mechanisms that allow adaptation to the environment. This is how a person perceives himself and his behavior.

3. “SuperEgo” (“Super Ego”). The unconscious, acquired before the appearance of speech function. It includes norms of behavior, rules, prohibitions and various taboos that are a product of the influence of other people. This is how the person was raised by the people around him: family, educators, friends, all those with whom we communicate and who are significant to us. These are the so-called norms of society, the source of moral and religious feelings, the controlling and punishing agent, the product of influence emanating from other people. Occurs in early childhood.

Rice. 3.3. Personality structure according to Z. Freud

“It” is in conflict with the “Super Ego.” According to Freud's psychoanalysis, the structure of a harmonious personality implies an equal combination of “It” and “Superego”. Any excess in one of these substances can lead to deviations in mental processes and even the occurrence of pathologies. At the same time, Freud did not reject the idea that by working not only on our consciousness, but also on the unexplored corners of the subconscious, we are able to develop a harmonious personality. This idea makes it possible for psychoanalysis to still remain one of the leading directions in psychology.

The founder of “analytical psychology,” Carl Gustav Jung, makes significant changes in the structure of personality. A student of the atheist Freud, Jung was a deeply religious man and in his theories he rehabilitated the concept of “soul.”

Jung also conducts a thorough analysis of cultures and myths, in which he finds specific behavior corresponding to them, and at the same time similar, despite racial and gender differences, motives.

Jung's most important contribution is considered to be the introduction of the term “collective unconscious”, the content of which is archetypes. Archetypes are accumulated human experience that settles in the psyche in the form of patterns of behavior, thinking, worldview, and functions in a manner similar to instincts. Jung considers one of the fundamental archetypes to be the archetype of the self, God in oneself. In his opinion, the soul is what God gave to man, therefore the task of each person is to find this particle in himself without falling into the heresy of narcissism. Actually, the realization of this self is what Jung calls individuation. He notes that personality has many components, and each realized archetype becomes part of the self. It is extremely important to maintain harmony between them without distortions in one direction to the detriment of others. The way archetypes manifest can be seen in dream work.

At the same time, Jung also talks about the personal unconscious, the content of which is complexes, repressed experiences and personal meanings. Jung's personality structure is more complex than Freud's (Fig. 3.4).

Rice. 3.4. Personality structure according to K.G. Jung

According to Jung, the following parts are identified in the personality structure:

– I (self)– this is the center of a person’s self-awareness, a manifestation of his internal harmony and integrity;

– A person- represents a social mask, that is, how a person behaves in society and how he wants to be represented. It is worth noting that a person is not always who a person really is.

– Shadow- combines the base manifestations of man, what Freud called “It”. Often a person tries to hide the presence and especially the content of this component both from others and from himself.

– Anima and animus- male and female manifestations of the soul. In this regard, Jung distinguishes feminine and masculine properties. Feminine – tenderness, aestheticism, caring, masculine – strength, logic, aggressiveness.

Jung introduced sociological features into psychoanalysis and made it sociotropic. Many researchers of traditions, myths and fairy tales are guided by the results of his works.

In psychology, there are two main directions of personality research: the first is based on the identification of certain personality traits, the second is based on the determination of personality types.

From the point of view of domestic psychologists, the elements of the psychological structure of a personality are its psychological properties and characteristics, usually called “personality traits,” which they try to conditionally fit into a number of substructures. The lowest level of personality is a biologically determined substructure, which includes age, gender properties of the psyche, innate properties such as the nervous system and temperament. The next substructure includes individual characteristics of a person’s mental processes, i.e. individual manifestations of memory, perception, sensations, thinking, abilities, depending both on innate factors and on training, development, and improvement of these qualities. Further, the level of personality is also its individual social experience, which includes the knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired by a person. This substructure is formed primarily during the learning process and is of a social nature. The highest level of personality is its orientation, including drives, desires, interests, inclinations, ideals, views, beliefs of a person, his worldview, character traits, self-esteem. The substructure of personality orientation is the most socially conditioned, formed under the influence of upbringing in society, and most fully reflects the ideology of the community in which the person is included. This is exactly how S.L. viewed the personality structure. Rubinstein (Fig. 3.5).

The differences between people are multifaceted: in each of the substructures there are differences in beliefs and interests, experience and knowledge, abilities and skills, temperament and character. That is why it is not easy to understand another person, it is not easy to avoid discrepancies, contradictions, even conflicts with other people. To understand yourself and others more deeply, you need certain psychological knowledge combined with observation.

Rice. 3.5. Personality structure according to S.L. Rubinstein

Hierarchical personality structure(according to K.K. Platonov) is presented in the following figure. 3.6.

Rice. 3.6. Personality structure according to K.K. Platonov

As already mentioned: the basis of the second approach to considering personality structure is the definition of personality types. An example of this approach is personality typology according to E. Shostrom. E. Shostrom in the book “Anti-Carnegie or Manipulator” divides all people into manipulators and actualizers. An actualizer is a person who uses his inner potential and lives a full life. The life style of a manipulator is based on 4 pillars: lies, unawareness, control and cynicism. The actualizer's lifestyle is honesty, awareness, freedom and trust (Table 3.1).

The transition period from manipulation to actualization represents a movement from apathy and deliberateness to vitality and spontaneity.

Table 3.1

Main contrasting characteristics of extreme types

The actualizer is safer than the manipulator because he understands, firstly, that he is unique; secondly, that its uniqueness is a value. The actualizer seeks originality and uniqueness within himself. The manipulator, on the contrary, pushes his originality deeper and repeats, copies, replicates someone else's behavioral models. He tries, puffs, climbs, but over already mastered mountains.

The attitude of the manipulator to others is objective, distant. The attitude of the actualizer is subjective; he communicates closely, over a short distance.

A manipulator is a person who understands the secrets of human nature with one sole purpose - to better control those around him. Hiding your true deep feelings is the mark of a manipulator.

The modern manipulator has developed from society's orientation towards the market, when a person is a thing about which you need to know a lot and which you need to be able to manage.

The author believes that we are all manipulators and each of us contains several manipulators. At different moments in life, first one or the other of them guides us, but still one type of manipulator is predominant. Before rejecting or amputating our manipulative behavior, we should try to remake or modernize it into actualized behavior, i.e. we need to manipulate more creatively. Sjostrom identifies eight main types of manipulators and eight types of actualizers (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2

Main types of manipulators and actualizers

1. Dictator. He exaggerates his power, he dominates, he orders, he quotes authorities, i.e. does everything to control his victims. Types of dictator: abbess, chief, boss, minor gods.

2. Rag. Usually a victim of a dictator and his exact opposite. The Rag develops great skill in interacting with the dictator. She exaggerates her sensitivity. At the same time, typical techniques are: forgetting, not hearing, passively remaining silent. Varieties of a rag - suspicious, stupid, chameleon, conformist, embarrassed, retreating.

3. Calculator. Exaggerates the need to control everything and everyone. He deceives, evades, lies, tries, on the one hand, to outwit, on the other hand, to double-check others. Varieties: businessman, swindler, poker player, advertising maker, blackmailer.

5. Bully. Exaggerates his aggressiveness, cruelty, and hostility. Controls using various types of threats. Varieties: insulter, hater, gangster, threatening. The female version of the bully is the grumpy woman.

6. Nice guy. Exaggerates his caring, love, attentiveness. He kills with kindness. In some ways, dealing with him is much more difficult than dealing with a bully. In any conflict between a bully and a nice guy, the bully loses. Varieties: obsequious, virtuous, moralist, person of organization.

7. Judge. Exaggerates his criticism. He doesn’t trust anyone, is full of accusations, indignation, and has difficulty forgiving. Varieties: omniscient, accuser, accuser, collector of evidence, shamer, appraiser, avenger, forcing one to admit guilt.

8. Defender. The opposite of a judge. He overemphasizes his support and forbearance towards error. He corrupts others by empathizing beyond measure and refuses to allow those he protects to stand on their own feet and grow into their own. Instead of taking care of his own affairs, he takes care of the needs of others. Varieties: hen with chicks, comforter, patron, martyr, helper, selfless.

Thus, a manipulator is a person who treats people ritualistically, trying his best to avoid intimacy in relationships and difficult situations.

Sjostrom derives types of actualizers from manipulators. A Dictator can develop into a wonderful Leader who does not dictate terms, but leads. A Rag can become a Sympathizer. He not only talks about his weakness, but also really realizes it. He may demand good work, but be loyal to the fact that any person is prone to making mistakes.

From the Calculator can develop Attentive. Sticky can become Grateful. He not only depends on others, but also appreciates the work of others. From Bully, Assertive develops. He is distinguished by frankness and directness. The Nice Guy develops into the Caring Guy. He is truly disposed towards people, friendly, capable of deep love. And he doesn't have the servility of a Nice Guy. From the Judge the Expressor develops. He has the rare ability to express his beliefs without criticizing or humiliating others. The Defender can become a Driver. He does not teach or protect everyone, but helps everyone find their own path without imposing their views.

So, a manipulator is a multifaceted personality with antagonistic opposites in his soul; the actualizer is a multifaceted personality with complementary opposites.

The author of this theory adheres to the view that each of us has both a manipulator and an actualizer, and each of us is free to choose which of the listed types he should be. “People are like rivers, and the same water flows in all these rivers. These rivers are simply different in shape. So are people. Each of us carries within us the seeds of every human quality, and the manifestation of certain qualities depends on the situation.”

One of the typological approaches to personality structure was presented above. Now let’s take a closer look at the basic personality traits.

The problem of personality is one of the central ones in psychology. Personality(from lat. persona – actor’s mask; role, position; face, personality) in psychology is designated systemic social quality, acquired by an individual in objective activity, communication and characterizing the level of representation of social relations in the individual.
The relationship between the individual, as a product of anthropogenesis (the origin and development of all species and subspecies of the genus Man (Homo) in genetic, mental and sociocultural terms), an individual who has mastered socio-historical experience and an individuality that transforms the world, can be conveyed by the formula: “One is born an individual . They become a person. Individuality is defended."
The most important personality characteristics
1. Personality is a socio-historical category. The main thing in characterizing a person is his social essence and social functions. A person is not born a personality, he becomes one in the process of interaction with the social and natural environment, with the material and spiritual circumstances of his life and activity. In the process of this interaction, a person is formed and manifests himself as a personality. Personality is an object of study only in social sciences - history, philosophy, sociology, ethics, aesthetics, psychology, pedagogy, etc.
2. Personality is not a passive product of social and other circumstances. The most important characteristic of personality is activity. Under personality activity is understood as a person’s ability to make socially significant transformations of the environment, manifested in communication, joint activities, and creativity. The most general characteristic of personality activity is active life position, expressed in her ideological adherence to principles, consistency in defending her views, unity of word and deed.
3. Stability of personality traits. Despite all the variability of a person’s mental manifestations, the relative constancy of his mental make-up is still clearly evident, which, in particular, makes it possible to predict the behavior of a given person in a given situation.
4. Unity of personality. Personality is a single whole, where each trait is inextricably linked with others, and therefore each personality trait acquires its own meaning, often completely different, depending on its relationship with other personality traits.

Man, individual, individuality, subject.

The root or generic, initial concept is the concept of man. Human is a biological creature belonging to the class of mammals of the species Homo sapiens. Unlike other animals, this species is endowed with consciousness, that is, the ability to cognize the essence of both the external world and its own nature, and in accordance with this act and act intelligently. Man as a biological species is characterized by a special bodily organization, the essential features of which are: upright posture, the presence of hands adapted to knowledge and work, and a highly developed brain capable of reflecting the world in concepts and transforming it in accordance with its needs, interests and ideals.
By “individual” we mean this specific person with all his inherent characteristics. The concept of individual is embodied family affiliation person. To say about a particular person that he is an individual means to say very little. Essentially this means that he potentially Human.
Individuality is usually considered as a set of physiological and mental characteristics of a particular person that characterize his originality. Individuality is not something supra- or superpersonal. Individuality is a person in its originality. When they talk about individuality, they mean the originality of the individual. Each person is individual, but the individuality of some manifests itself very clearly, prominently, while others are barely noticeable. Individuality can manifest itself in the intellectual, emotional, volitional sphere, or in all spheres of mental activity at once.
Subject- this is a person in the totality of such mental characteristics that allow him to carry out goal setting and actions, deeds, activities and behavior in general that correspond to goals.

Various approaches to determining a person's personality.

Personality psychology occupies a special position among other areas in psychological science; the high significance and at the same time complexity of this area of ​​psychology is obvious. However, there is still no established unified and generally accepted definition of this concept. Such polysemy and uncertainty of the psychological content of the concept of “personality” is due to the multifaceted nature of this concept itself. Thus, there are many definitions of personality, but there is still little agreement between them, so it is preferable to call existing developments in the field of personality research not theories, but models of personality or guiding approaches to its research.
The earliest and most traditional for psychology is personality trait theory G. Allport. The creator and followers of this theory used large statistical samples of subjects in their research and applied labor-intensive methods of mathematical processing of large amounts of data from “objective” measurements obtained through psychodiagnostic tests. However, the personality structure identified in this way did not provide a sufficiently stable and reliable prediction of human behavior. This concept, thus, “grabbed” the formal-situational and static rather than the content-dynamic side of a person’s personal characteristics.
He played a significant role in the development of psychological research on personality. psychoanalysis Z. Freud. Psychoanalysts of the Freudian school and his followers are characterized by a special understanding of personality as an iceberg, only a small part of which is visible to us, and most of the causal mechanisms of behavior are hidden in the depths of the unconscious. The experience of psychoanalysis has proven the need to recognize and adequately assess the role of the unconscious in the mental regulation of human behavior. Many practically-oriented studies have convincingly shown that in organizing his life a person strives to satisfy deep-seated personal motives and needs, among which motives of pleasure, aggressive and sexual desires occupy a significant place.
Behaviorist theories of personality, reflected in the works of L. Thorndike, E. Tolman and others, occupy a special place in the history of psychological research. In them, personality (or rather personal variables) is understood as a certain system that connects the totality of an individual’s responses to environmental stimuli , and the diagnosis of personal variables is based on recording external observable reactions to these stimuli and their combination. The result of such learning is usually described in terms of a stimulus-response pair.
Until now, a significant place in psychological research has been occupied by cognitive concepts and personality theories. Psychologists who adhere to this direction (T. Bauer, S. Schachter, D. Kelly, etc.) understand personal behavior as a function of internal structural formations formed in the process of a person’s relationship with the outside world. As a result of these studies, numerous structural blocks of cognitive and executive processes were identified (perception; memory of various types and levels; decision-making processes; programs and action plans, etc.).
Humanistic direction(A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V. Frankl, etc.) affirms the personality as a holistic and unique formation. This direction does not deny either the role of the social environment or the role of biological factors, which, mutually determining each other, become the source of the essential forces of the individual. They consider the main thing in a personality to be its “primary motives,” the desire to be independent, to establish oneself in a social environment, to self-realize, to create oneself as an individual. The formation of a person, in their opinion, as a rule, proceeds and is carried out in the transformative activity of a person, which determines the development of his individuality and uniqueness.
In domestic psychology, starting from the 20s, the so-called activity approach, which is currently widely used in the study of almost all aspects of human mental life (L. S. Vygotsky, V. V. Davydov, A. N. Leontiev, S. L. Rubinstein, etc.). The starting point of this approach is the statement that personality develops, manifests itself and changes in activity. At the same time, the activity itself is understood very broadly; This is both objective activity and the work of consciousness. Activity shapes consciousness, and consciousness, in turn, shapes activity. At the same time, consciousness is also interpreted in a broad sense: it includes images, attitudes, motives, interests, knowledge, skills, etc. The personality, as supporters of this approach argue, is a system, and the systemic qualities of the personality are the result of a person’s broad social, external and internal, mental and moral activity.

Factors of socialization, formation and development of personality.

Personality is not an innate and genetically determined characteristic of a person. A child is born a biological individual who is yet to become an individual. However, this can only happen under certain conditions (Scheme 6).
The leading role in the formation of personality is played by social circumstances, which include the following:
Macro environment– social system, government system, level of development of society, socio-political, ethnic, religious situation in society, etc.
Microenvironment is an environment of direct human contact interaction: family, friends, school class, work team.
Upbringing- a specially organized process of formation and development of a person, first of all, his spiritual sphere.
Activity– this is a dynamic connection of the subject with the surrounding world, acting as a necessary and sufficient condition in the implementation of the subject’s life relations.
Communication– social interaction in all its diversity.

Scheme 6

Factors in the formation and development of personality

The mental (and biological) development of a person is influenced by built environment his a habitat, modern technology, technologies for its production and operation, by-products of modern industries, the information and technical environment that is created by modern radio, television and other technical devices.
Along with social factors, a major role in the formation and development of personality is played by biological factor, physiological characteristics of a person, and, first of all, the characteristics of general and specific types of GNI, the uniqueness of the morphology of the brain, the development of its individual functional structures, the presence of certain disorders, anomalies in the functioning of the brain and its parts.
Human mental development also depends on natural factors: climatic, geographical, space and other conditions of human life and activity (earthquakes, floods, fires, ozone holes, general warming of the planet).
One of the less studied factors is noosphere as a special state of the information and energy environment of the earth. The noosphere influences the spiritual state of every person living on Earth.
Plays a special role in the formation and development of personality she herself as one of the most important conditions for the manifestation of all external and internal influences on a person. In general, personality as a systemic mental formation of a person is the result of a complex interaction of these and other factors and circumstances.

System of socio-biological substructures according to A. G. Groysman.

The dynamic structure of personality has four substructures.
First substructure combines the orientation, attitudes and moral traits of the individual. This substructure is formed through education. It is socially conditioned. Briefly, it can be called a motivational, or substructure of personality orientation.
Second substructure personality includes knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired through personal experience, through training, but with a noticeable influence of biologically determined personality properties. It is sometimes called individual culture, or preparedness; briefly it can be called the substructure of experience.
Third substructure covers individual characteristics of individual mental processes or mental functions as forms of reflection. The influence of biologically determined features in this substructure is visible even more clearly. This substructure, interacting with the others, is formed through exercise. Briefly, it can be called a substructure of reflection forms.
Fourth substructure combines the properties of temperament (typological properties of the personality), gender and age properties of the personality and its pathological, so-called organic changes. The necessary traits included in this substructure are formed (or rather, they are altered through training). They depend incomparably more on the physiological and even morphological characteristics of the brain than on social influences on a person, and therefore this substructure can be briefly called a biologically determined substructure.

The concept of personality orientation, its essential characteristics. Personality orientation system
An important characteristic of personality is its orientation, which determines goals that a person sets for himself, aspirations which are characteristic of him, motives, according to which he acts. Focus Personality is a person’s personal sense of purpose determined by a system of motivations. Depending on the sphere of manifestation, the following types of personality orientation are distinguished: professional, moral, political, everyday, etc., for example, in the field of creativity, sports activities, etc.
Personality orientation characterized relationships, quality and forms. Relationships are included in the structure of all forms of orientation and are manifested primarily in a person’s relationships with other people, with the team and with society. They exhibit such character traits as sociability, self-esteem, professional pride, self-criticism, etc.
The qualities of focus are classified as follows: level, breadth, intensity, stability, effectiveness. The level of orientation refers to the social significance of the individual. But with a high level of motives, a narrow orientation of the personality is sometimes observed, in contrast to which the concept of breadth is distinguished. The intensity of the focus has a range, often associated with emotional coloring from vague inclinations, conscious desires, active aspirations to complete conviction. The stability of direction is characterized by its constancy over a certain time, and the most important quality - effectiveness, determines the activity of realizing goals in activities.
The main forms of personality orientation include worldview, belief, ideal, interests, inclinations, drives and desires. Worldview– this is a system of established views on the world around us and our place in it; has such characteristics as scientificity, systematicity, logical consistency, evidence, etc. Belief– an important conscious motive of behavior, giving all the activities of the individual special significance and clear direction. Attraction– the least differentiated vague aspiration without a clear awareness of the goal. Wish- a higher form of orientation that has a goal of its aspiration. Interest as a conscious form of cognitive orientation, as well as inclination how the desire for a certain activity is the basis for the formation ideals embodied in a specific image.
Directional system personality includes the following main elements (components): a system of value-semantic formations of the personality, claims of the personality (claims for a certain place in the system of professional and other social and interpersonal relationships, for a certain success in actions, deeds, for a particular place in life), need states of the individual and motives of the individual (internal mental motivations for activity, behavior, conditioned by the actualization of certain needs of the individual.

Need-motivational sphere. Types of needs and motives

Under need in psychology they understand the need a person experiences for something. This is a state of physical and mental discomfort that occurs in a person when a stable balance is disturbed in interaction with the material and spiritual environment of his life and activity.
Human needs are varied. First of all, the needs are identified natural (natural), which directly ensure human existence: the needs for food, rest and sleep, clothing and housing. Along with natural ones, a person has spiritual or social needs: the need for verbal communication with other people, the need for knowledge, active participation in public life, cultural needs (reading books and newspapers, listening to music, etc.).
According to A. Maslow, every person naturally has so-called “instinctoid” basic needs, which manifest themselves in a certain hierarchical sequence (Fig. 3).


The lowest (and most significant) basic level is physiological (organic) needs. Physical survival depends on their satisfaction. These include the needs for oxygen, sleep, food and drink, normal (for physical survival) temperature, rest during high physical exertion, etc. If one or another physiological need is not satisfied, then it becomes dominant and all the needs of higher levels cease to be significant fade into the background. According to A. Maslow, a chronically hungry person is incapable of creative activity, relationships of affection and love, desire for a career, etc.
The next level from the base of the pyramid includes safety and security needs associated with long-term survival. These are the needs for protection from natural disasters, from chaos and unrest, from disease; needs for legitimacy, stability of life, etc. These needs become relevant when physiological needs are sufficiently satisfied and fade into the background.
Third level of motivation represented by the needs of belonging and love. They manifest themselves when the needs of the two previous levels are satisfied. A person needs relationships of affection and love with members of his family, relationships of friendship, spiritual intimacy. In addition, he needs attachment to his father's house, the place where he grew up. The fulfillment of the needs of this level is, according to A. Maslow, the main prerequisite for mental health.
With sufficient satisfaction of the needs for belonging and love, their relevance decreases and the next, fourth level arises - esteem and self-esteem needs. Self-esteem needs are aimed at gaining self-confidence, achievement, freedom and independence, and competence. Respect needs (by other people) are associated with motives of prestige, status, reputation, recognition, fame, and evaluation. Satisfaction of the needs of this level generates a sense of self-esteem, awareness of one’s usefulness and necessity. Dissatisfaction leads to passivity, dependence, low self-esteem, and feelings of inferiority.
When the needs of the four listed levels are sufficiently satisfied, need for self-actualization. A. Maslow understands it as “a person’s desire for self-embodiment, for the actualization of the potentialities inherent in him.” “Man... must conform to his own nature if he wants to live at peace with himself.”
Needs are expressed in motives, i.e. in direct motivation for activity. The following types of motives are distinguished: emotional(desires, desires, attractions) and rational(aspirations, interests, ideals, beliefs), conscious(a person is aware of what motivates him to activity, what is the content of his needs) and unconscious(a person is not aware of what motivates him in his activity; characterized by attitudes and drives).