Features of interpersonal relationships in children with intellectual disabilities of preschool age. Methodology "Interpersonal relationships of a child" by R. Gilles

Ya.L. Kolominsky considers the preschool group as a genetically early stage in the social organization of people, which is then replaced by a school group, which has its own internal structure and dynamics. Children are drawn to the company of their peers, but it is not always easy to establish favorable relationships with them. Some children behave very actively in the group, they are self-confident, they “breathe easily” among their peers. Others no longer find a favorable “emotional climate” here; they feel insecure, somewhat depressed, and are often subordinate to the former. Favorable relationships with peers give the child a sense of community with them and attachment to the group. Their absence leads to a state of tension and anxiety, which creates either a feeling of inferiority and depression, or aggressiveness. This is bad in both cases, because it can contribute to the formation of a negative attitude towards children, people in general, vindictiveness, hostility, and a desire for solitude.

Of interest in this regard is the study by V. Kislovskaya, conducted using the projective technique. The children were shown pictures depicting various situations: the child’s relationships with children and the teacher in kindergarten, and with family members at home. The proposed situations could have a double emotional meaning. It was contained in the facial expression of the main character of the picture, which was given in contours. The child was offered a cheerful and sad image of a face; he could insert any of them, which he found most suitable for the given situation.

Identifying themselves to a large extent with the hero of the picture, some children endowed him with a cheerful face, others with a sad face, and explained their choice differently depending on what experiences they themselves experienced associated with visiting kindergarten, with their emotional climate there. “She is glad that she came to kindergarten” (substitutes a “cheerful face”): “She loves kindergarten” (substitutes a “cheerful face”); “Kolya has probably already arrived, we are friends with him”; “She was sad (puts on a “sad face”), no one wanted to play with her, and then she didn’t want to play with them herself.”

“I’ll give the girl a sad face, she doesn’t like to go to kindergarten, but her mother brought her and said that she had to go to work.” An emotionally positive attitude towards peers, the kindergarten, and the teacher was expressed, as a rule, by children occupying a favorable position in the system of personal relationships in the group. The negative attitude is expressed by those whose emotional climate in the group was unfavorable. How does a child feel if only one person in the group likes him? It turns out that it is of great importance whether it is mutual or one-sided sympathy.

If it is mutual, this is enough for the child to experience an emotionally positive attitude towards his peers, the group and even the kindergarten as a whole. If the sympathy is one-sided, undivided, the child may acutely experience his situation and the unsatisfied need for selective communication.

It is important that the relationships between preschoolers are favorable. The nature of the relationships between children and their position in the group are determined both by the child’s personal qualities and by the requirements for him that have developed in the group.

As a rule, children who are especially loved and popular are those who know how to invent and organize games, are sociable, friendly, cheerful, emotional, mentally developed, have certain artistic abilities, actively participate in classes, are quite independent, have an attractive appearance, are neat and tidy . The least popular include children who are usually characterized by opposite properties. These are often closed, extremely insecure, unsociable children, or, on the contrary, overly sociable, annoying, embittered. They often offend their peers, fight, and push each other. “Unpopular” children often lag behind their peers in development, lack initiative, and sometimes suffer from deficiencies in speech and appearance. The teacher should not leave such children unattended. It is necessary to identify and develop their positive qualities, raise their low self-esteem and level of aspirations in order to improve their position in the system of personal relationships. You also need to reconsider your personal attitude towards these children, because the “unpopular” ones, as a rule, include those whom the teachers themselves do not like (of course, such an attitude towards the child does not pass without a trace for others). The calm attitude of the teacher towards the “stars” - the most preferred children - can be dangerous. It is important that the leadership role, which these children often occupy, does not develop in them conceit, arrogance, the desire to “command at all costs,” and the tendency to humiliate others. The teacher must know for what qualities and actions the children achieved their leadership, and on what their authority is built. After all, the moral core and value orientations of “popular” children are not always positive. Sometimes a small “despot” can act as a leader. Active, sociable, sometimes with organizational inclinations, such a leader often accepts into his game only for a certain “bribe” (“if you give me your box”, etc.). The influence of such people on other members of the group is sometimes so profound that it continues to exist even in their absence. His brothers and sisters also have a significant influence on the development of a child’s personality. They enter the child’s immediate microenvironment and occupy one of the central places in it. Surrounded by older brothers and sisters, the child feels emotionally protected.

So, in preschool age, a child develops quite complex and diverse types of relationships with other children, which largely determine the development of his personality.

The presence of psychological and socio-psychological observation, as well as special research methods (conversations, sociometric methods, choice in action, the method of instantaneous sections, etc.) helps the teacher to identify the system of personal relationships of children in a group. It is important to study these relationships in order to purposefully shape them in order to create a favorable emotional climate for each child in the group.

Communication of preschoolers with peers

Communication with other children is important for the mental development of a child. Interest in a child's peers awakens genetically somewhat later than in adults, at the end of the first year of life. However, it gradually becomes more urgent, especially in the preschool years.

“One of the decisive factors in the social education of children,” noted A.P. Usova, “is the society of children itself, within which a person is formed as a social being. Undoubtedly, we can talk about some kind of amateur forms in which such a society can take shape and develop even at the early stages of children’s social development. Here the child appears before us mainly as a subject, a person living his own life, as a member of a small children’s society with its interests, demands, connections, winning some kind of place in this society.”

Communication is understood as informational, emotional and substantive interaction, during which interpersonal relationships are realized, manifested and formed. The role of communication in the formation of a child’s personality is extremely important. In the process of communication, personal relationships develop. The nature of the child’s relationships with others largely determines what personal qualities will be formed in him. During preschool age, a peer becomes an important part of a child's life. By about four years of age, the peer is preferred over the adult. The development of communication with peers in preschool age goes through a number of stages.

Interpersonal relationships of children, unlike communication, do not always express themselves in external actions and are an aspect of the child’s consciousness and self-knowledge.

A specific feature of children's contacts is their non-standard and unregulated nature. When interacting with peers, preschoolers use the most unexpected actions and movements.

During preschool age, a child’s relationship with a peer has certain age-related dynamics. At early preschool age, a peer is not yet a significant other for the child. At the next stage, the child’s self is objectified, i.e. is defined through his specific qualities and capabilities and asserts himself through opposition to peers.

Preschool education and training, which have an undeniable independent value, act not only as a preparatory stage of primary education, but also as the most important responsible period in the formation of a person’s personality.

At different age stages, general patterns of formation and development of interpersonal relationships operate, despite the fact that their manifestations in each specific group have their own unique history.

The attitudes of teachers and other significant adults surrounding the child have a significant influence on children’s perceptions. The kid will be rejected by his classmates if he is not accepted by the teacher.

In many areas of a child’s mental development, the influence of an adult can be traced, this is due to the fact that:

1. An adult is a source of various influences for children (auditory, sensorimotor, tactile, etc.);

2. The child’s efforts are reinforced by an adult, supported and corrected;

3. When enriching a child’s experience, an adult introduces him to something, and then sets the task of mastering some new skill;

4. In contacts with an adult, the child observes his activities and sees role models.

In the preschool period, the role of adults for children is maximum and the role of children is minimal.

In the primary school period, the decisive role of adults fades into the background and the role of children increases.

In the high school period, the role of adults is leading; by the end of this period, the role of peers becomes dominant; during this period, personal and business relationships merge.

What kind of interpersonal relationships can develop in children's groups?

In children and adolescent groups, the following types of relationships can be distinguished:

Functional-role relationships develop in various types of children’s life activities such as work, education, productivity, and play. During these relationships, the child learns norms and methods of action in a group under the control and direct guidance of an adult.

Emotional-evaluative relationships between children are the implementation of correction of a peer’s behavior in accordance with the norms that are accepted in joint activities. Here, emotional preferences come to the fore - dislikes, likes, friendships, etc. They arise early, and the formation of this type of relationship can be determined by external moments of perception or the assessment of an adult, or past communication experience.

Personal-semantic relationships between children are those relationships in a group in which the goals and motives of one child in a peer group acquire personal meaning for other children. When the comrades in the group begin to worry about this child, his motives become their own, for the sake of which they act.

Features of interpersonal relationships in children of preschool, primary and senior school age

Preschool period

The period of preschool childhood begins from approximately 2-3 years, when the child begins to recognize himself as a member of human society, until the moment of systematic education at 6-7 years. During this period, the prerequisites for the formation of social and moral qualities of the individual are created, the basic individual psychological characteristics of the child are formed. Preschool childhood is characterized by the following features:

1. Excessively high role of the family in satisfying material, spiritual, cognitive needs;

2. The child’s maximum need for adult help to meet basic life needs;

3. Low ability of the child to protect himself from the harmful influences of his environment.

During this period, the child intensively develops (through relationships with adults) the ability to identify with people. The baby learns to be accepted in positive forms of communication, to be appropriate in relationships. If the people around you treat the baby kindly and with love, fully recognize his rights, and show him attention, he becomes emotionally prosperous. This contributes to the formation of normal personality development, the development in the child of positive character traits, a friendly and positive attitude towards people around him.

The specificity of the children's team during this period is that the elders act as bearers of leadership functions. Parents play a huge role in shaping and regulating children's relationships.

Signs of interpersonal relationships developing between children in preschool age.

The main function of a group of preschool children is to form the model of relationships with which they will enter life. It will allow them to engage in the process of social maturation and reveal their moral and intellectual potential. Thus, interpersonal relationships in preschool age are characterized by the following features:

1. Basic stereotypes and norms that regulate interpersonal relationships are formed and developed;

2. The initiator of relations between children is an adult;

3. Contacts are not long-term;

4. Children are always guided by the opinions of adults, and in their actions they are always equal to their elders. Show identification with people who are close to them in life and peers;

5. The main specificity of interpersonal relationships at this age is that it is clearly manifested in imitation of adults.

Junior school childhood - this period begins at the age of 7 and lasts until the age of 11. At this stage, the process of further development of individual psychological qualities of the individual occurs. Intensive formation of the basic social and moral qualities of the individual. This stage is characterized by:

1. The dominant role of the family in meeting the emotional, communicative, material needs of the child;

2. The dominant role belongs to the school in the development and formation of social and cognitive interests;

3. The child’s ability to withstand the negative influences of the environment increases while maintaining the main protective functions of the family and school.

The beginning of school age is determined by an important external circumstance - entry into school. By this period, the child has already achieved a lot in interpersonal relationships:

1. He orients himself in family and kinship relationships;

2. He has self-control skills;

3. Can subject himself to circumstances - i.e. has a solid foundation for building relationships with adults and peers.

In the development of a child’s personality, a significant achievement is the predominance of the motive “I must” over “I want.” Educational activities require new achievements from the child in the development of attention, speech, memory, thinking, and imagination. This creates new conditions for personal development.

When children enter school, a new step in the development of communication occurs, and the system of relationships becomes more complex. This is determined by the fact that the baby’s social circle is expanding and new people are involved in it. Changes occur in the child’s external and internal position, and the topics of his communication with people expand. The circle of communication between children includes questions that relate to educational activities.

The teacher is the most authoritative person for children of primary school age. The teacher's assessments and judgments are perceived as true and not subject to verification or control. In the teacher, the child sees a fair, kind, attentive person and understands that the teacher knows a lot, can encourage and punish, and create a general atmosphere of the team. Much is determined by the experience that the child received and learned in preschool age.

In interpersonal relationships with peers, the role of the teacher is important. Children look at each other through the prism of his opinions. They evaluate the actions and misdeeds of their comrades by the standards introduced by the teacher. If the teacher evaluates the child positively, then he becomes the object of the desired communication. A negative attitude towards a child on the part of a teacher makes him an outcast in his team. This sometimes leads to the child developing arrogance, a disrespectful attitude towards classmates, and the desire to achieve encouragement from the teacher at any cost. And sometimes, children perceive emotionally without realizing their unfavorable situation, but experience it.

Thus, interpersonal relationships in primary school age are characterized by:

1. Functional-role relationships are replaced by emotional-evaluative ones, correction of the peer’s behavior occurs in accordance with the accepted norms of joint activity;

2. The formation of mutual assessments is influenced by educational activities and teacher assessment;

3. The dominant basis for evaluating each other becomes the role characteristics of a peer, rather than the personal characteristics.

Senior school age is the period of child development from 11 to 15 years, which is characterized by the following features:

1. The family plays a dominant role in satisfying the material, emotional and comfortable needs of the child. By the end of senior preschool age, it becomes possible to independently realize and satisfy some of these needs;

2. School plays a decisive role in meeting the socio-psychological and cognitive needs of the child;

3. The ability to resist the negative influences of the environment begins to appear, in turn, it is combined with the child’s tendency to submit to them under unfavorable circumstances;

4. There remains a high dependence on the influence of surrounding adults (teachers, grandparents, parents) in the development of personal self-knowledge and self-determination.

In older (adolescent) age, a number of important changes occur in the physical, mental, and emotional development of the student. By the age of 11, children begin to experience intensive physical growth and significant changes occur in the structure of the entire body. Not only external and internal changes occur in the body of adolescents due to physical development. The potential abilities that determine the child’s intellectual and mental activity also change.

During this period, the determining factor in the child’s behavior is external data and the nature of comparison of oneself with older people. Children develop an inadequate assessment of their capabilities and themselves.

Domestic psychologists, starting with L. S. Vygotsky, believe that the main new formation in adolescence is a sense of adulthood. But comparing oneself with adults and focusing on adult values ​​very often makes a teenager see himself as dependent and relatively small. This gives rise to a contradictory feeling of adulthood.

Any teenager psychologically belongs to several social groups: school class, family, friendly and neighborhood groups, etc. If the values ​​and ideals of the groups do not contradict each other, then the formation of the child’s personality takes place in the same type of socio-psychological conditions. If there is inconsistency in norms and values ​​between these groups, then this puts the teenager in a position of choice.

Thus, we can draw the following conclusion that interpersonal relationships in high school age are characterized by:

1. Emotional-evaluative relationships between children are gradually replaced by personal-semantic ones. This suggests that one child’s motive may acquire personal meaning for other peers;

2. The formation of mutual assessments and relationships is no longer influenced by adults, but only by the personal, moral characteristics of the communication partner;

3. The moral and volitional qualities of a partner at this age become the most important basis for choice in establishing connections;

4. But during this period, the role of the adult still remains significant for choosing the form and stereotypes of regulating interpersonal relationships.

5. Teenagers' relationships become more stable and selective;

6. The level of development of interpersonal relationships between communication partners at this age very clearly determines the specifics of the processes of individualization of adolescents.

37. Crises of preschool childhood. Crisis states in children occur in different ways. For some, the passage of the turning point is accompanied by increased nervous excitability, bad behavior, and for others, illness.

Newborn crisis. For a baby, the first time after birth is a moment of crisis. In contrast to intrauterine existence, the new environment is brighter, the temperature regime is different, and the way of nutrition is different. You have to adapt to everything new, and this is physical and mental labor. The tiny creature is defenseless. His well-being is entirely in the hands of his parents. From the moment of birth, the baby has innate reflexes: sucking, grasping, plantar, stepping, swallowing, etc. (15 in total). These reactions are unconditional, they are natural and necessary for the baby’s adaptation to independent existence. Their weak manifestation or absence is a cause for concern on the part of parents and doctors. Along with these natural patterns, conditioned reflexes are also formed during the newborn period. This is a primitive activity as a consequence of responding to the environment. A characteristic sign of a newborn crisis, from a psychological point of view, is the opposition of the child’s complete dependence on adults, the need for care and attention, on the one hand, and the inability to express his desires, on the other. This “conflict” becomes the impetus for the emergence of the child’s individual psychological activity. He was born, he is already a personality! The duration of this critical period varies from person to person. It usually lasts from the moment of birth, when the child begins to lose weight, until the time when the weight is restored to its original values. In general, the crisis stage in the life of infants lasts no more than 2 months. When a child begins to communicate with adults in the most primitive way, then the neonatal period ends and the next stage begins - infancy.

Crisis of the first year of life. Children are considered babies until they begin to walk and talk. These new formations, as psychologist Vygotsky called all the skills acquired by children, appear in the age range from 9 months to one and a half years. This period is called the crisis of the first year of life. Speech activity and walking are distinctive signs of the development of a one-year-old child. The ability to walk and speak emerges at different times for each baby. Some people say their first words at 10 months, others later. It's the same with walking. Everything is individual. The first steps and first words make the child more independent. There is a certain gap between him and the guardianship of adults. He wants to do everything himself. Parents are sometimes afraid of such independence and needlessly hinder the child’s development. He will still taste everything, such is the nature of understanding the world. Adults need to show tolerance and ensure the safety of their child. He will stomp around without holding his mother’s hand, he will take into his mouth everything that catches his eye and interests him, he will try and “give commands” by pointing with his finger or by starting a hysteria. Parents need to make sure that they do not hit sharp corners or fall near hard objects, remove small parts, medications, etc., and learn to negotiate. By the way, it is at this stage that you can lay the foundation for a good relationship with your baby.

Crisis of three years. The period of early childhood (from 1 to 3 years) ends. The child knows a lot, he already eats himself and makes something. To achieve the next period of development, a clear “I” is missing. The crisis of three-year-olds lies in its formation. The ego at this age takes its strong position. About six months before the child turns 3 years old, the needs “I want” and “I can” begin to form. Kids always try to insist on their own or do something contrary to the wishes of adults. Their behavior is dominated by despotism, negativism, protest, stubbornness, the desire to tease and swear. All these symptoms are the result of the formation of the “I”. What should parents do? After all, by scolding and punishing, the rebellion of your own child will intensify. An effective “medicine” in this period is play. Only in it can you direct the child’s desires in the right direction and teach him that in addition to “I want,” there is “I can’t.”

Crisis of seven years. Soon the baby will go to school. Many new and interesting things will open up before him. But not only opportunities await him, but also duties and responsibilities. In this regard, the crisis of seven years begins. At an earlier age, children are naive and spontaneous. Closer to school, they already begin to monitor their behavior, many become shy. They seem to begin to evaluate themselves and their behavior. Self-esteem is a new development of children at 7 years old. In addition, younger schoolchildren begin to become aware of their feelings and experiences. Before committing an act, children by the age of seven think about whether it will be good or bad for him. Uncontrollability is the main complaint of parents of first-graders. Denial of everything, insolence, and antics are characteristic of these children. It is worth remembering that at the age of seven, children identify themselves with the ideal of an adult. It’s good when one of the parents becomes such an ideal. Then, with your behavior, you can serve as a model for your beloved child and help him overcome the crisis.

38. Stages of development of play activity in children. The first stage in the development of gaming activity is the Introductory game. Based on the motive given to the child by an adult with the help of a toy object, it represents an object-based play activity. Its content consists of manipulation actions carried out in the process of examining an object. This activity of the infant very quickly changes its content: the examination is aimed at identifying the characteristics of the toy object and therefore develops into action-oriented operations. The next stage of gaming activity is called Display Game, in which individual object-specific operations become actions aimed at identifying the specific properties of an object and achieving a certain effect with the help of this object. This is the culmination of the development of the psychological content of play in early childhood. It is he who creates the necessary soil for the formation of appropriate objective activity in the child. The next stage in the development of the game: plot-based. Its psychological content also changes: the child’s actions, while remaining objectively mediated, imitate in a conditional form the use of an object for its intended purpose. This is how the prerequisites of a plot-role-playing game gradually become infected. At this stage of development of the game, word and deed come together, and role-playing behavior becomes a model of relationships between people that are meaningful to children. The stage of self-role play begins, in which the players model the labor and social relations of people familiar to them. A scientific understanding of the stage-by-stage development of play activity makes it possible to develop clearer, systematized recommendations for guiding the play activities of children in different age groups. Emotions cement the game, make it exciting, create a favorable climate for relationships, increase the tone that every child needs - a share of his mental comfort, and this, in turn, becomes a condition for the preschooler’s receptivity to educational actions and joint activities with peers.

INTRODUCTION 3

CHAPTER 1. THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT 6

1. Understanding Interpersonal Relationships in Psychology 6

   Types, forms of interpersonal relationships 12

   The importance of interpersonal relationships in personal development 18

CHAPTER 2. FORMATION OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 23

2.1. Patterns of formation of interpersonal relationships 23

2.2. Features of the formation of interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities 30

CHAPTER 3. STUDYING THE FEATURES OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 34

3.1. Methods for studying interpersonal relationships 34

3.2. Studying interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities using the “Drawing Apperception Test” (PAT) technique 37

3.3. Analysis of data obtained during the use of the “Drawing Apperception Test” (PAT) technique 40

CONCLUSION 42

APPENDIX 44

REFERENCES 52

INTRODUCTION

At the present stage, issues of social adaptation of children with intellectual disabilities are being actively addressed. The ability of a “special” child to establish positive interpersonal relationships with the adults and peers around him depends on the ability to correctly assess the situation and find an adequate way to respond. Interpersonal relationships not only reveal the most essential characteristics of the objects and subjects of communication, but also in different directions influence the further formation of the personality and most clearly on such blocks of properties in which its relationship to other people and to itself is expressed. In addition, requirements are imposed on the cognitive processes, emotional and volitional sphere of children with intellectual disabilities. The changes that occur in them under the influence of interpersonal interaction, with positive or negative results for the goals of each participant, in turn, more or less strongly affect such basic properties of the individual, which express his attitude to various social institutions and communities of people, to nature , labor.

The study of interpersonal relationships was dealt with by A.F. Lazursky, V.N. Myasishchev, L.S. Vygotsky, Ya.L. Kolominsky, E.A. Panko. Communication as one of the components of interpersonal relationships has been most fully studied in the works of M.I. Lisina, L.M. Shipitsyna and others.

The mental development features of a child with intellectual disability do not allow him to fully establish interaction with the environment. Impaired intellectual activity affects the ability to adequately reflect stimuli coming from the environment, including the perception of behavioral reactions of others that arise in interpersonal relationships. Features of communication and interpersonal relationships of children with intellectual disabilities were considered in the scientific works of Zh.I. Shif, V.G. Petrova, L.M.. Shipitsyna, V.A. Varyanen, A.I. Gaurilius.

However, the features are not described fully and are not considered in all age periods. Therefore, studying the characteristics of interpersonal relationships in children with intellectual disabilities is a pressing issue.

Object research is interpersonal relationships in preschool age.

Subject research is the study of interpersonal relationships in children with intellectual disabilities.

Target: to identify the characteristics of interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities based on the “Drawn Apperception Test” (PAT) technique.

Tasks:

Determine the place of interpersonal relationships in psychology;

Identify types and forms of interpersonal relationships;

Determine the importance of interpersonal relationships in a person’s personal development;

Identify patterns in the formation of interpersonal relationships;

To determine the features of the formation of interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities;

Analyze methods for studying interpersonal relationships;

To study interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities using the “Drawn Apperception Test” (PAT) technique

Analyze the data obtained during the use of the methodology;

Research methods:

Theoretical analysis of scientific literature;

Methodology "Drawn apperception test" (PAT).

CHAPTER 1. THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Understanding Interpersonal Relationships in Psychology

When considering the issue of interpersonal relationships, it is necessary to study the interaction of a person with the outside world. In psychology, interaction is understood as the process of direct influence of objects (subjects) on each other, generating mutual conditionality and connection. The study examines interactions between people. Interpersonal interaction can be considered in two aspects:

This is an accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term contact of two or more people, entailing a mutual change in behavior, activity, and attitudes;

This is a system of mutually determined individual actions connected by a cyclical causal dependence, in which the behavior of each participant acts as both a stimulus and a reaction to the behavior of the others.

Signs of interpersonal interaction are objectivity (the presence of a goal (object) external to the interacting individuals, requiring combined efforts), explicitness (availability for observation and registration), situationality (regulation of activity by specific conditions (intensity, norms, rules)) and reflexive ambiguity.

Interpersonal interactions can occur at different levels:

1. intrapersonal (emotional-volitional attitudes towards the subject towards himself);

2. level of interaction in small groups;

3. level of labor or other employment (production, educational, etc.);

4. at the level of the social community (class, national, family, etc.).

At all levels of interpersonal interaction, interpersonal relationships are very important. Attitude (towards people and activities) is the subjective side of the reflection of reality, the result of a person’s interaction with the environment.

Interpersonal relationships are subjectively experienced relationships between people, manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication.

Interpersonal relationships are viewed as a complex and dynamic structure that one learns to build from an early age. The ability to create interpersonal relationships is determined by the upbringing received in the family, in a preschool institution, school and work collective. It determines the circle of friends, acquaintances and other people with whom interpersonal relationships are built. In the studies of A.F. Lazursky considers the concept of personality relationships as a set of theoretical concepts, according to which the psychological core of a personality is an individual value system of its subjective-selective relationships to activity and represents the internalized experience of relationships with other people in the social environment. V.N. Myasishchev notes that the system of relationships determines the nature of the individual’s experiences, the peculiarities of the perception of reality, the nature of behavioral reactions to external influences. Positive and negative experiences of interpersonal relationships form the system of internal relationships of the individual.

In the socio-psychological literature, different points of view are expressed on the question of where interpersonal relationships are “located”, primarily in relation to the system of social relations. Sometimes they are considered on a par with social relations, at their basis, or, on the contrary, at the highest level, in other cases - as a reflection in the consciousness of social relations, etc. .

The nature of interpersonal relations can be correctly understood if they are not put on a par with social relations, but if we see in them a special series of relations that arise within each type of social relations, not outside them. Schematically, this can be represented as a section through a special plane of the system of social relations: what is found in this “section” of economic, social, political and other types of social relations is interpersonal relations. With this understanding, it becomes clear why interpersonal relationships seem to “mediate” the impact on the individual of a broader social whole. Ultimately, interpersonal relationships are determined by objective social relations, but precisely, in the final analysis. Practically both series of relations are given together, and underestimation of the second series prevents a truly in-depth analysis of the relations of the first series. The existence of interpersonal relations within various forms of social relations is, as it were, the implementation of impersonal relations in the activities of specific individuals, in the acts of their communication and interaction. At the same time, during this implementation, relations between people (including social ones) are again reproduced. In other words, this means that in the objective fabric of social relations there are moments emanating from the conscious will and special goals of individuals.

For each participant in interpersonal relationships, these relationships may seem to be the only reality of any relationship whatsoever. Although in reality the content of interpersonal relations is ultimately one or another type of social relations, i.e. certain social activities, but the content and especially their essence remain largely hidden. Despite the fact that in the process of interpersonal, and therefore social relations, people exchange thoughts and are aware of their relationships, this awareness often does not go further than the knowledge that people have entered into interpersonal relationships. Certain moments of social relations are presented to their participants only as their interpersonal relationships: someone is perceived as an “evil teacher”, as a “cunning merchant”, etc. At the level of ordinary consciousness, without special theoretical analysis, this is exactly the situation. Therefore, the motives of behavior are often explained by this picture of relationships given on the surface, and not at all by the actual objective relationships behind this picture. Everything is further complicated by the fact that interpersonal relationships are the actual reality of social relations: outside of them, there are no “pure” social relations anywhere. Therefore, in almost all group actions, their participants appear in two capacities: as performers of an impersonal social role and as unique human individuals. This gives grounds to introduce the concept of “interpersonal role” as a fixation of a person’s position not in the system of social relations, but in the system of only group connections, and not on the basis of his objective place in this system, but on the basis of the individual psychological characteristics of the individual. The discovery of personality traits in the style of fulfilling a social role causes responses in other members of the group, and, thus, a whole system of interpersonal relationships arises in the group.

The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations: their most important specific feature is their emotional basis. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be considered as a factor in the psychological “climate” of the group.

The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that arise in people towards each other. In the domestic school of psychology, three types or levels of emotional manifestations of personality are distinguished: affects, emotions and feelings.

Feeling as an analytical unit for determining interpersonal relationships has been considered by many psychologists. Despite the fact that people behave in accordance with conventional norms, feelings, determining the peculiarities of perception and interpretation of events, largely regulate the behavior of individuals. Feelings determine interpersonal relationships in various social situations.

The simplest and most general typology of feelings is distinguished by the criteria of positive and negative relationships and the level of awareness. Thus, we can distinguish between positive, negative, ambivalent, conscious and unconscious feelings.

1. positive or conjunctive feelings bring people together;

2. negative or disjunctive separate;

3. ambivalent are contradictory relationships in which both positive and negative feelings are experienced towards the same person, depending on the characteristics of the person’s personality and character.

Not all interpersonal relationships are accompanied by feelings. A person may not experience any feelings towards another, i.e. be indifferent. The absence of feelings, the so-called unemotional state, is also a characteristic of the context of the relationship. A.B. Dobrovich identified indifference as a property of a person’s emotional sphere that arises in a situation of interaction. Indifference towards another person is interpreted as an unfavorable factor if the interaction is long-term. At the same time, the subject every day comes into contact with people for whom he most likely cannot experience any feelings (cashiers, salespeople, public transport drivers, etc.). In such cases, indifference or an emotionless state is completely normative.

4. conscious;

5. unconscious feelings.

They are determined not only by a person's personality, but also by social control. In relation to the same person, an individual can experience some feelings on a conscious level and completely different ones on an unconscious level. If feelings conflict with social norms, then a person is often unaware of them, since norms, sanctions and expectations of social control are internalized in the process of education, development and socialization. The problem for some people is that they do not quite understand exactly what feelings they experience in a given situation, if the feelings at the conscious and unconscious levels do not coincide.

Thus, a person’s feelings are the unique basis of all his relationships to himself, other people and the world around him. It is feelings that determine interpersonal relationships in a social group.

Interpersonal relationships are determined by the social positions of individuals, “their system of meaning formation, and the ability for socio-psychological reflection.” Interpersonal relationships are determined by several mechanisms of mutual influence:

A) Conviction. This is the process of logical justification of any judgment or conclusion. Persuasion involves a change in the consciousness of the interlocutor or audience that creates a willingness to defend a given point of view and act in accordance with it.

B) Mental infection. It “is carried out through the perception of mental states, moods, experiences.” Children are especially susceptible to infection, since they do not yet have firm life beliefs, life experience, and have the ability to easily adapt and accept different attitudes.

B) Imitation. It is aimed at the child’s reproduction of external behavioral traits or the internal logic of the mental life of another significant person.

D) Suggestion. Occurs when there is trust in the speaker’s messages and generates a willingness to act in accordance with the assigned attitudes. Children are also especially sensitive to suggestion, since teachers and parents have authority in their eyes, so they know how to think and act.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, interpersonal relationships between people are almost always woven into activities and are considered as communication. Without people communicating with each other, there cannot be collective work, learning, art, games, or the functioning of the media. An important component of interpersonal relationships is also interpersonal perception, which is defined as the understanding and assessment of a person by a person. Compared to the assessment of inanimate objects, interpersonal perception is more biased; here the evaluative and value-based coloring is more clearly expressed. An important feature is the perception of not only the qualities of a person, but also the perception of him in relationships with other people. Sociology pays more attention to the study of interpersonal perception, which identifies the following mechanisms:

Identification - understanding and interpreting another person by identifying oneself with him;

Social-psychological reflection - understanding another person by thinking for him;

Empathy is understanding another person through emotional empathy for his experiences;

Stereotyping is the perception and assessment of another by extending to him the characteristics of a social group.

Attempts are currently being made to construct more universal mechanisms of interpersonal perception.

Interpersonal relationships are not only a necessary component of activity, the implementation of which involves the interaction of people, but at the same time a prerequisite for the normal functioning of a community of people.

1.2 Types, forms of interpersonal relationships

To better navigate the diversity of relationships, it makes sense to turn to the classifications existing in the psychological literature. Various researchers identify a large number of parameters for classifying relationships, which creates certain difficulties in classifying relationships as one type or another. Often the same relationships are designated by different terms, which leads to pseudo-differences in the classifications of their types.

The degree of expression of such characteristics as adequacy, stability, efficiency, harmony and depth allows us to identify several types or groups of relationships that differ from each other. These characteristics can influence not only each other, but also a number of other relationship parameters. As a consequence, there is a wide variety of interpersonal relationships that require appropriate criteria for their classification.

V.N. Myasishchev speaks about relations of sympathy and antipathy as manifestations of more integral relations of friendship and enmity. Y. Gozman distinguishes the relationship of sympathy and love, including respect as a component in the structure of the relationship of sympathy. V.V. Stalin empirically identified three bipolar scales of relationships: sympathy - antipathy, respect - disrespect, closeness - distance. A. Kronik and E. Kronik, using the concepts of “valence”, “position” and “distance” to designate the same bipolar scales, also distinguish between positive relationships - negative relationships, relationships from below - relationships from above, close relationships - distant relationships.

N. N. Obozov offers the following classification of interpersonal relationships: acquaintance relationships, friendly, comradely, friendly, love, marital, related and destructive. This classification is based on several criteria: the depth of the relationship, selectivity in choosing partners, and the function of the relationship. The main criterion, in his opinion, is the extent and depth of a person’s involvement in a relationship, and additional criteria are the distance between partners, the duration and frequency of contacts, the participation of role clichés in acts of communication, norms of relationships, requirements for the conditions of contact. According to N.N. Obozov, different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion of certain levels of personality characteristics in communication.

V. Shute denotes three dimensions of interpersonal relationships - affiliation (or inclusion), control and openness. Each dimension has its own type of relationship. These relationships are formed at certain stages of human development. Thus, affiliation relationships dominate the first stage of a person’s life and are necessary for his survival. Controlling relationships are formed between the ages of approximately two and four years. They center around the distribution of power and responsibility and provide socialization for the child. Open relationships are formed between the ages of four and six. They are associated with the increasing complexity of the relationships of love and affection in which a small child is included. In order to successfully develop further, he needs to learn at this stage to be open, that is, to express and communicate his feelings to others.

Affiliation has to do with bringing people together—belonging, allegiance, living together. Affiliation does not require such strong emotional connections as openness. A person’s behavior in this type of relationship is determined by how significant the person feels in them. Depending on this, his behavior can be subsocial (if he feels insignificant and tries to maintain a distance between himself and others), supersocial (if he feels insufficiently significant and is afraid of remaining unnoticed) and social (if he feels himself a valuable and significant person and successfully solved the problem of joining in childhood).

The degree of control in a relationship depends on how competent and adequate a person feels. He can behave as an abdicrat, that is, refuse power and control over others if he does not want to make decisions and avoids responsibility; as an autocrat seeking power out of fear of not having influence and wanting to compensate for this feeling; and to be a democrat, that is, to feel competent in giving orders and obeying others.

The degree of openness in a relationship is based on the ability to love and be loved. Depending on this, a person will be subpersonal if he avoids openness and maintains relationships on a superficial level, fearing intimacy; superpersonal if he tells everyone about his feelings, trying to please others; and personal if he feels good “both in situations that require intimacy and in situations in which it is more appropriate to maintain distance.”

Thus, inclusion or affiliation affects the duration of the relationship, control affects who will make decisions, openness affects how close the relationship will be. These types of relationships are actualized for a person whenever he is included in a particular group or social organization.

I. Yalom, based on an analysis of the works of A. Maslow and E. Fromm, identifies authentic, genuine or mature, deficient, or pathological interpersonal relationships. Diversity in relationships is due to the different orientations of individuals - an orientation towards growth or towards replenishing a deficit. A growth-oriented individual does not treat others as a source of supply, but is able to view them as complex, unique, whole beings. A person focused on filling the deficit perceives others from the point of view of usefulness, and he either does not pay attention to those aspects of the other that are not related to his own needs or treats them as an irritant. In deficit relationships, the main motive is protection from loneliness, and other people play the role of a means here. Such relationships stunt personal growth because the partners never really know each other. Characteristic features of deficit relationships are blurring of personal boundaries, often reaching the point of merging with another, dependence, loss of one’s own “I”, avoidance of the experience of isolation and despair, compulsivity, incomplete inclusion, when a person either keeps part of himself outside the relationship or includes some part of himself in it. then a fictitious person, for example, their partners from the past or parents. In such relationships, the loss of self-awareness is often accompanied by complacency and the attainment of an illusory sense of security through expanding the self to include others.

The degree of maturity affects many other parameters of relationships - the degree of certainty, depth, stability, awareness, and ethics. Characteristic features of a mature relationship are reciprocity, activity, respect for the other, genuine knowledge about the other, the ability to give, independence.

Thus, mature relationships lead to mutual changes and personal growth, mutual spiritual enrichment and soften a person’s existential loneliness. Those who were able to survive their isolation and explore it are capable of forming such relationships. Such experiences develop the ability to “tolerate isolation” and the ability to establish “connection with others.” This happens due to the fact that in a mature relationship a person changes as a result of an encounter with another and this experience is internalized, becoming an internal reference point, an omnipresent reminder of the possibility and value of a true encounter.

Another classification of relationships is T. Leary’s typology of interpersonal relationship styles. In T. Leary's typology, two subgroups are distinguished - a subgroup of aggressive-dominant styles and a subgroup of friendly-submissive styles. The first subgroup unites the leading styles of interpersonal relationships, the second - the slave ones. The leading styles include authoritative-leading, independent-dominant, straightforward-aggressive and distrustful-skeptical. The submissive styles include submissive-shy, dependent-obedient, cooperative-conventional, and responsible-generous.

T. Leary's typology of interpersonal relationship styles is based on two interrelated parameters: dominance - submission and benevolence - hostility. Naturally, this classification cannot accommodate the entire variety of relationships in the space of two dimensions.

In domestic social psychology, there are three different types of interpersonal communication: imperative, manipulation and dialogue.

Imperative communication is an authoritarian, directive form of influencing a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, forcing him to take certain actions. The peculiarity of the imperative is that the ultimate goal of communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled. Orders, instructions, instructions and demands are used as means of exerting influence.

We can name a group of social activities in which the use of an imperative type of communication is completely justified from both the target and ethical points of view. These include military statutory relations, “superior-subordinate” relations, in difficult and extreme conditions.

At the same time, it is possible to identify those areas of interpersonal relationships where the use of the imperative is inappropriate and even unethical. First of all, we are talking about intimate-personal relationships, marital and child-parent relationships. It is known that with the help of commands, orders and unconditional prohibitions, one can achieve external obedience and fulfillment of any requirements. However, they do not become part of a person’s internal personal beliefs, his introverted motivation.

Manipulation is a common form of interpersonal communication that involves influencing a partner in order to achieve one’s hidden intentions. Like the imperative, manipulative communication involves influencing a partner in order to achieve one’s goals. The fundamental difference is that the partner is not informed about the true goals of communication. They either hide from him or are replaced by others.

With regard to manipulation, we can also say that there are areas of human interaction where it is quite appropriate and where it is practically unacceptable. The sphere of “permitted manipulation” is undoubtedly business and business relations in general. The concept of communication between D. Carnegie and his many followers has long been a symbol of this type of relationship. At the same time, there is a danger of transferring such skills of mastering the means of manipulative influence to other people in the business sphere and to other areas of human relationships, control over oneself and one’s life.

A comparison of imperative and manipulative types of communication reveals their deep internal similarities. Putting them together, they can be characterized as different types of monologue communication. A person, considering another as an object of his influence, essentially communicates with himself, with his goals and objectives, as if ignoring his interlocutor.

As a real alternative to this type of relationship between people, dialogue communication can be considered, which allows you to switch to an attitude towards the interlocutor. Dialogue is built on fundamentally different principles than monologue communication. It is possible only if the following immutable rules of interaction are observed:

Psychological attitude towards the current state of the interlocutor and one’s own current psychological state;

Non-judgmental perception of a partner, a priori trust in his intentions;

Perception of a partner as an equal, having the right to his own opinion and his own decision;

Personification of communication is a conversation on one’s own behalf, without reference to opinions and authorities, a presentation of one’s true feelings and desires.

Analysis of communication shows how complex and diverse this process is in its manifestations and functions, which is associated with its role and significance both in the life of an individual and society as a whole.

Equally complex is the internal structure of communication itself. It can be distinguished into three interconnected aspects: communicative, perceptual and interactive.

The communicative side of communication consists of the exchange of information between communication partners, the transfer and reception of knowledge, ideas, opinions and feelings. The interactive side of communication (from the word "interaction" interaction) consists in the exchange of actions between the communicating parties, i.e. organization of interpersonal interaction. Finally, the perceptual side of communication is the process of education and knowledge between people and the subsequent establishment of certain interpersonal relationships on this basis.

1.3 The importance of interpersonal relationships in personal development

The nature of interpersonal relationships in any community is quite complex. They reveal both the purely individual qualities of a person - his emotional and volitional properties, intellectual capabilities, as well as the norms and values ​​of society that he has internalized. In the system of interpersonal relations, a person realizes himself by giving to society what he perceives in him. It is the activity of the individual, his actions that are the most important link in the system of interpersonal relationships. By entering into interpersonal relationships of the most diverse in form, content, values, and structure of human communities - in kindergarten, in the classroom, in a friendly circle, in various types of formal and informal associations - the individual manifests himself as a person and has the opportunity to evaluate himself in a system of relationships with others.

The formation of a conscious attitude towards the object of cognition and action is associated with the development of all aspects of the psyche. Awareness of one’s relationship to the environment gives rise to corresponding feelings and emotions, which in turn stimulate activity and influence the development of personality orientation. Relationships that help the individual to master the relationships in society and get to know other communities have a special influence on the individual. These relationships can be viewed at different levels. The level of social communities shapes class, national, group and family relations. They help a person to realize that he is a social unit of society, to accept and preserve the social experience of building relationships. The level of groups of people engaged in one activity or another helps to build industrial relations, educational, theatrical, etc. The level of relationships between people in groups can be considered as a person’s ability to realize his place in the group and receive an adequate assessment of his behavior. The level within a personal relationship initiates a person’s emotional and volitional attitudes towards himself, i.e. self-awareness and self-esteem.

Correctly assessing the role of interpersonal relationships in a timely manner to stimulate the optimal emotional state of the individual, the maximum manifestation of his socially approved inclinations and abilities and, finally, to shape him as a whole in the direction needed by society, is necessary because interpersonal relationships as a value in the system of values ​​that most people have , occupy a very high place.

Interpersonal relationships are a complex and dynamic structure that we learn to build from an early age, for this reason we can say that the ability to create interpersonal relationships is influenced by the upbringing we received in the family, at school, etc. Also, our upbringing determines the circle of our interpersonal relationships or the so-called circles of rotation in society: our friends, our acquaintances and other people with whom we build interpersonal relationships.

The importance of interpersonal relationships, their “quality” and content is preserved at all stages of a person’s life path, since they are a necessary condition, an attribute of a person’s existence from the first to the last day of his life. In adulthood, when a person becomes a full-fledged and conscious master of his life path, when he himself is more or less able to choose the people who make up his immediate environment, the subjective significance of relationships with others does not decrease at all. The well-being and possibility of personal growth of an adult, no less than that of a newly emerging personality, depend on the quality of the interpersonal relationships in which he is included and which he is able to “build.” It is no coincidence that satisfaction with interpersonal relationships and satisfaction with one’s position in these relationships is the most important criterion for social adaptation. Close and satisfying connections with friends, family or membership in close-knit groups (social, religious, etc.) help improve not only psychological, but also physical health.

Such a high importance of interpersonal relationships for each individual person is based on the fact that contacts and favorable relationships with other people are a necessary means, a way of satisfying the most important, fundamental needs of the individual: for example, the need for self-identity and self-worth, the implementation of which is impossible without confirmation of his existence, awareness your certainty, your “I” - here and now. The necessary conditions for such “confirmation” are attention, interest, and acceptance of the person by others - especially close, significant people. It has already become a textbook expression of W. James that the existence of a person in a society where they do not pay attention to him, where they do not show any interest in him, is a “devilish punishment.” Indeed, long-term existence in a system of “non-confirming” relationships leads to various kinds of personality deformations.

There are a number of vital needs, the satisfaction of which is impossible without contact with other people:

In addition to the aforementioned need for “confirmation,” one can highlight

the need for belonging (the need to be included in various groups and communities);

the need for affection and love (to love and be loved);

In sympathy;

in self-esteem (prestige, status, recognition);

in “control” over others;

in a sense of individuality and at the same time, in a system of beliefs and views that give meaning to life, etc.

A person consciously or unconsciously focuses on ensuring that the characteristics that others carry within them correspond to the system of his motives. The general life position of a person, the nature of his activity, the level of social maturity, and the possibility of realizing his potential abilities largely depend on the extent and manner in which these needs are satisfied. Therefore, other people and relationships with them and towards them acquire personal meaning, and the desire to establish and maintain personally satisfying relationships becomes a vital value.

Deeply moral relationships that are built on the basis of unconditional positive attention, mutual respect, goodwill, understanding, and love subjectively satisfy a person and create the prerequisites for adequate and complete satisfaction of these needs. It is appropriate to recall the so-called “golden rule of morality” - the universal principle of behavior of civilized peoples: “In everything, as you want people to do to you, do so to them.” The attitude towards people “returns” to the individual not only in the form of specific relationships, but also in the form of a qualitatively new “space” in which the individual then lives. This “space” can become an arena for development or decline, bringing a person either satisfaction or cutting off opportunities for further growth and self-realization.

CHAPTER 2 FORMATION OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES

2.1 Patterns of the formation of interpersonal relationships in preschool age

Children's interpersonal relationships develop not only through the mechanisms of interpersonal interaction, but also through interpersonal perception and communication. Their manifestation can be noticed, first of all, in communication. Empathy and reflection are important mechanisms of interpersonal perception. Moreover, reflection is not understood in a philosophical sense, but “... by reflection is meant the awareness by each of the participants in the process of interpersonal perception of how he is perceived by his communication partner.”

A child lives, grows and develops in an interweaving of various kinds of connections and relationships. In children's groups, interpersonal relationships develop that reflect the relationships of the participants in these groups in the specific historical situation of the development of society. Despite the fact that the manifestations of interpersonal relationships in each specific group have their own unique history, at different age stages there are general patterns of their formation and development.

The first of them reflects the conditioning of the nature of interpersonal relationships by the place that the age social group occupies in society.

The second characteristic of interpersonal relationships is their dependence on joint activity, which in any historical era mediates the development of interpersonal relationships in a group and determines their structure.

The third feature of interpersonal relationships lies in their level nature - a somewhat established group has a certain level of development, on which the presence or absence of certain socio-psychological characteristics and the nature of its influence on individuals depends.

Any group at any age level is characterized by its own special social development situation. The concept of a social situation of development was introduced by L.S. Vygotsky to characterize the development of a child’s personality within a certain age stage on the basis of a specific historical system of his relations with social reality. The concept of a social situation of development can also be applied to the characteristics of a children's group.

These are, first of all, the objective conditions of existence of a given group, determined by the historical era, culture, etc.

Another component of the social situation of the development of a child group is its objective social status, determined primarily by the position of childhood as a social age group in the structure of society.

In addition to the objective conditions of the social situation of development of a children's group, there is a subjective aspect of the social situation of development. It is represented by social position, i.e. the attitude of the members of the children's group to these objective conditions, status, and their readiness to accept this position and act in accordance with it.

Children's perceptions are significantly influenced by the attitudes of teachers and other significant adults. A child, even hidden, implicitly not accepted by the teacher, may be rejected by his peers.

The influence of an adult can be traced in many areas of mental development: from the area of ​​children’s curiosity to personality development, due to the fact that:

For children, an adult is a rich source of various influences (sensorimotor, auditory, tactile, etc.);

When enriching a child’s experience, an adult first introduces him to something, and then often sets him the task of mastering some new skill;

The adult reinforces the child’s efforts, supports and corrects them;

A child, in contact with adults, observes his activities and draws role models from them.

In case of insufficient contacts with adults, a decrease in the rate of mental development is observed. The complete isolation of children from adults does not allow them to become human and leaves them in the position of animals (children - Mowgli).

The role of the adult in interpersonal relationships.

The preschool period is the maximum role of adults, the minimum role of children. .

In children's groups, functional-role, emotional-evaluative and personal-semantic relationships between peers can be distinguished.

Functional - role relationships. These relationships are fixed in areas of children’s life activities specific to a given community (work, education, productivity, play) and unfold as the child learns norms and methods of action in the group under the direct guidance and control of an adult. An adult sanctions certain patterns of behavior. Functionally, role relationships manifested in play activities are largely independent and free from direct control by an adult;

The main function of emotional-evaluative relationships in a children's group is to correct the behavior of a peer in accordance with accepted norms of joint activity. Emotional preferences come to the fore here - likes, dislikes, friendships, etc. They arise quite early in ontogenesis, and the formation of this type of relationship is either determined by purely external moments of perception, or mediated by an adult’s assessment, or by past experience of communicating with this child - negative or positive. Emotional-evaluative relationships are regulators in situations of possible conflicts when distributing roles in the game. Each child, claiming a significant role in the game, is faced with similar aspirations of other children. In this situation, the first manifestations of the demand for justice in relationships may spontaneously arise - an orientation towards the norm of turn-taking in the distribution of prestigious roles, awards and distinctions, which, as children assume, must be strictly observed. However, sometimes the child’s aspirations remain unfulfilled and he has to be content with an insignificant role and does not receive what he expected. In the children's group, mutual correction of behavior is carried out in accordance with learned social norms. If a child follows these norms, then he is assessed positively by other children; if he deviates from these norms, then “complaints” arise to an adult, dictated by the desire to confirm the norm.

Personal-semantic relationships are relationships in a group in which the motive of one child acquires a personal meaning for other peers. At the same time, participants in joint activities begin to experience the interests and values ​​of this child as their own motives, for the sake of which they act, taking on various social roles. Personal-semantic relationships are especially clearly manifested in those cases when a child, in relationships with others, actually takes on the role of an adult and acts according to it. This can be revealed in critical situations.

Let's consider the features of interpersonal relationships in preschool children.

Preschool childhood is the period from the moment of awareness of oneself as a member of human society (from about 2-3 years) to the moment of systematic education (6-7 years). Here the decisive role is played not by the calendar terms of development, but by the social factors of personality formation. During preschool childhood, the basic individual psychological characteristics of the child are formed, and the prerequisites for the formation of social and moral qualities of the individual are created.

This stage of childhood is characterized by:

The child’s maximum need for adult help to meet basic life needs;

The highest possible role of the family in satisfying all basic types of needs (material, spiritual, cognitive);

Minimum possibility of self-defense from adverse environmental influences.

In relationships with adults and peers, the child gradually learns subtle reflection on another person. During this period, through relationships with adults, the ability to identify with people, as well as with fairy-tale and imaginary characters, with natural objects, toys, images, etc., intensively develops. At the same time, the child discovers the positive and negative forces of isolation, which he will have to master at a later age.

Experiencing the need for love and approval, realizing this need and dependence on it, the child learns accepted positive forms of communication that are appropriate in relationships with other people. He progresses in the development of verbal communication and communication through expressive movements, actions that reflect emotional disposition and a willingness to build positive relationships.

The strongest and most important source of a child’s experiences is his relationships with other people - adults and children. When others treat a child kindly, recognize his rights, and show him attention, he experiences emotional well-being - a feeling of confidence and security. Usually, under these conditions, the child is in a cheerful, cheerful mood. Emotional well-being contributes to the normal development of a child’s personality, the development of positive qualities, and a friendly attitude towards other people.

In everyday life, the attitude of others towards a child has a wide range of feelings, causing him to have a variety of reciprocal feelings - joy, pride, resentment, etc. The child is extremely dependent on the attitude that adults show him.

A child, being dependent on the love of an adult, himself experiences a feeling of love for close people, primarily for parents, brothers, sisters.

The need for love and approval, being a condition for gaining emotional protection and a sense of attachment to an adult, takes on a negative connotation, manifesting itself in rivalry and jealousy.

Considering relationships with peers, we see that in the preschool team there is a unity of goals, norms and rules of behavior, their “leaders”, “stars”, “preferred” stand out. Unfortunately, there are also children who occupy a not very favorable position, a kind of “outcast”. There are no governing bodies here, as in a school community, but the regulation of relations still occurs through informal leadership, within the framework of a unique infrastructure of connections and interactions. The specificity of this team is that the exponents and bearers of the leadership functions of the asset are the elders: educators, the most caring nannies, service personnel. Parents play a huge role in the formation and regulation of children's relationships.

The main function of a group of preschoolers is to form the model of relationships with which children will enter life and which will allow them to engage in the further process of social maturation as soon as possible, with the least losses, and to reveal their intellectual and moral potential. The main core of this is the formation of humane relationships, that is, relationships of friendship, respect for elders, mutual assistance, caring for each other, the ability to sacrifice one’s own for others. To solve this problem, it is necessary for the child to create an atmosphere of emotional comfort in group communication. It is expressed in the fact that the child wants to go to his peers, he comes in a good mood, and is reluctant to leave them. It is important to emphasize: it is not so much about the mood as about the state. The first is changeable, depending on many random reasons and reasons. The second is more stable and determines the dominant chain of sentiments. Mood is a form of manifestation and existence of a state.

Thus, interpersonal relationships in preschool age are characterized by:

Relationships with peers are functional and role-based - the adult acts as a bearer of norms and forms of behavior that the child learns through relationships with peers;

Basic norms and stereotypes governing interpersonal relationships are laid down and formed;

The motives for interpersonal attractiveness are not realized;

The adult initiates the relationship;

Contacts (relationships) are not long-term;

Interpersonal connections are relatively stable;

In their actions they are guided by the opinions of adults;

They tend to identify with significant people in their lives (close people), peers in their immediate circle;

Specificity manifests itself in mental infection and imitation of emotional manifestations, assessments and judgments about people.

2.2 Features of the formation of interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities

Human personality is a product of socio-historical development. It is formed in the process of diverse interactions with the environment. Due to intellectual disability, the personality of a child with intellectual disability undergoes its formation in unique conditions, which is revealed in various aspects.

Children with intellectual disabilities, due to their inherent underdevelopment of thinking and weakness in mastering general concepts and patterns, begin to understand issues of social order, morality and morality relatively late. Their ideas about what is good and what is bad in preschool age are rather superficial. They learn the rules of morality from teachers, from parents, from books, but they cannot always act in accordance with these norms or use them in a familiar specific situation, based on reasoning. Therefore, it happens that children with intellectual disabilities, due to lack of understanding or instability of moral concepts due to suggestibility, succumb to bad influences and commit wrong actions.

The general emotional poverty of the majority of children with intellectual disabilities determines a significant decrease in the emotional response to adult communication. This is expressed in the fact that a very important indicator of development - the “revival complex” - in most cases is either absent for a long time, or is extremely suppressed and expressed in a rudimentary form. Most often, in children with intellectual disabilities, it manifests itself only at the end of the first year of life in a form that is very poor in structure and emotional coloring.

Turning to the origins of their emotional manifestations, we should also emphasize the child’s insufficient attention to an adult’s smile. A smile, as well as other facial expressions used by adults when interacting with a child, remain completely incomprehensible to him. The untimeliness and difficulty of establishing emotional contact between a child and an adult negatively affects the development of more complex types of communication.

Inadequate pre-speech communication with adults, lack of objective actions (manipulating objects), underdevelopment of fine motor skills by the end of the first year of a child’s life and early damage to the central nervous system are closely related to the extreme paucity of initial speech manifestations.

The underdevelopment of objective activity is largely responsible for the fact that these children begin to babble very late. The responsive, intonation-rich babble, characteristic of normally developing babies at the end of the first year of life, is extremely impoverished among their developmentally delayed peers: these children almost do not babble. They also do not communicate using babbling words woven into the situation, gestures, facial movements, etc.

In children with intellectual disabilities without special training, speech activity does not arise, pre-verbal types of communication with others do not develop, and objective activity does not develop.

In the structure of intellectual underdevelopment, a special place is occupied by specific speech impairment, which is closely related to both intellectual and general personal underdevelopment of children in this category.

Their speech development is characterized by the absence or later appearance of spontaneous babbling in response to adult speaking. There is a significant delay in the appearance of the first words; The process of mastering phrasal speech proceeds very slowly and with difficulty: the transition from pronouncing individual words to constructing a two-word sentence stretches out for a long time.

Children with intellectual underdevelopment develop and consolidate speech forms extremely slowly and lack independence in speech creativity; They have persistent phonetic underdevelopment, dominance of nouns in speech, insufficient use of words denoting actions, signs and relationships, reduced speech activity, and poverty of verbal communication.

Having a sufficiently large vocabulary for constructing statements in order to establish communication with others, children with underdeveloped intelligence are actually deprived of the possibility of verbal communication, because the acquired speech means are not designed to satisfy the need for communication. This creates additional difficulties for establishing interpersonal relationships.

Pronounced deviations in the course of ontogenetic development, due to the very nature of the disorders, significantly impede the timely and full development of speech communication; it is formed in preschool children with intellectual disabilities in a very defective manner; its motives come mainly from the organic needs of children. The need to communicate with others is dictated, as a rule, by physiological needs.

In preschool age, children with intellectual underdevelopment are more willing to play than to engage in joint activities with adults, which indicates a low need for communication with people around them. The weak development of social needs leads to the fact that by the end of preschool age children have great difficulty mastering the means of verbal communication, even in cases where they have a sufficient vocabulary and a satisfactory understanding of spoken speech.

It is also worthy of attention that children aged 5–6 years of age with a mild degree of intellectual underdevelopment, upon entering the group of a special kindergarten, display an inability to use their speech; They silently act with objects and toys, and extremely rarely turn to peers and adults.

Long-term observation of kindergarten students for children with intellectual disabilities showed that in a situation of unorganized play activity they use mainly two forms of communication. For the majority of children of senior preschool age with intellectual disabilities, a non-situational - cognitive form of communication is characteristic; other children resort to an even more elementary - situational-business form. None of them exhibited an extra-situational - personal form of communication, which is characteristic of normally developing children of the same age. Often children with intellectual disabilities try to avoid verbal communication. In cases where verbal contact occurs between a child and a peer or adult, it turns out to be very short-lived and incomplete. This is due to a number of reasons [1].

Among them are:

Rapid exhaustion of incentives to speak, which leads to the cessation of the conversation;

The child lacks the information necessary to answer, a poor vocabulary that prevents the formation of a statement;

Misunderstanding of the interlocutor - preschoolers do not try to understand what is being said to them, therefore their speech reactions turn out to be inadequate and do not contribute to the continuation of communication.

Features of the formation of interpersonal relationships in preschoolers with intellectual disabilities:

Tendency to mental infection by emotions;

Tendency to actively imitate ways of establishing interpersonal relationships;

Inappropriate reactions in communication are frequent;

Unformed interpersonal perception.

CHAPTER 3 STUDYING THE FEATURES OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES

3.1 Methods for studying interpersonal relationships in preschool age

Currently, in psychology there are quite a large number of specific techniques that allow one to study interpersonal relationships. V.B. Bystrickas and G.T. Homentauskas note the following reasons for systematizing these methods:

Based on the object (diagnosis of relationships between groups, intragroup processes, dyadic relationships, etc.);

Based on the tasks solved by the researcher (identifying group cohesion, compatibility, etc.);

Based on the structural features of the methods used (questionnaires, projective techniques, sociometry, etc.);

Based on the starting point for diagnosing interpersonal relationships (methods of subjective preferences, etc.).

At the same time, they note: “...Assessment of interpersonal relationships in different approaches is based on various mental determinants of personality... Thus, the researcher is always faced with the problem of choosing the “depth” of the methodology, which requires him to accurately understand the mechanisms of which psychological reality, a methodology has been built..." . Based on this criterion, the authors provide a brief overview of the following groups of techniques:

Diagnosis of interpersonal relationships based on subjective preferences. The traditional method of this group is the J. Moreno sociometric test, as well as a number of its modifications - for example, autosociometric methods. Noting the methodological shortcomings of this group, the authors note the following: "...conscious assessment due to social attitudes, attitudes towards the research process itself or due to the influence of the process of mental defense... can change dramatically..." And further: "...becomes in general, it is unclear exactly what psychological realities are revealed by, say, sociometric techniques in each individual case...";

Methods for indirect assessment of interpersonal relationships. The authors note that this is the youngest and least developed category of methodological techniques for studying interpersonal relationships. It is based on the patterns of influence of the emotional state on non-verbal behavior (mainly proxemic assessment, i.e. the subject’s choice of position in space relative to another person) and paralinguistic parameters. Among the shortcomings are the lack of development and narrowness of the information provided;

Methods of observation and expert assessment of interpretation. The emphasis here is on an objective and broad description of interaction, which is subsequently interpreted based on certain theoretical views. The researcher here is dealing with ambiguous psychological material; his interpretation is more integrative, more dependent on the psychological theory on which the researcher stands;

Diagnosis of individual properties affecting interpersonal relationships. Tests and scales have been created to measure such properties as leadership style, authoritarianism, compatibility, anxiety, personal values, etc. The authors highlight two of the most successful methods of this group - the California Psychological Personality Questionnaire and the T. Leary method. Unfortunately, “...it remains unclear how to relate different levels to each other...” - this author’s remark concerns the last technique. Because a detailed analysis cannot provide a synthesized, holistic image of the picture of interpersonal relationships;

Methods for studying the subjective reflection of interpersonal relationships. Most of these techniques are projective. They allow you to obtain information about the individual’s subjective reflection of interpersonal relationships, himself in them, his expectations and the psychological meaning of a certain way of reacting to the subject. These moments are determined by a certain set of reasons: the history of the relationship as a whole, the situation, the needs of the subject, the personal traits of those communicating. Such methods, despite the fact that they can provide extensive and deep information about a person, are characterized by a “large proportion” of subjectivity in the interpretation of data.

The study of the characteristics of a child’s relationship with his peers is a rather complex and subtle area of ​​practical psychology. The use of diagnostic techniques can give fairly reliable and reliable results only if the following conditions are met:

The methods should be used in combination (at least three or four), since none of them individually can provide sufficiently complete and reliable information. The use of techniques must necessarily be supplemented by observation of children’s behavior in natural conditions or specially created problem situations (for example, how children will behave when independently distributing a box of chocolates);

It is better to carry out diagnostics in a room where nothing distracts the child from solving the proposed problem (for example, in a playroom or study room); the presence of strangers can significantly influence behavior and responses, distorting the real picture of the relationship;

All diagnostic procedures must represent a trusting and friendly relationship between the child and the adult;

The diagnostic examination should be carried out in a natural and familiar form of play or conversation for preschoolers, and any evaluation, reprimand or encouragement directed towards the child is unacceptable;

The results of the diagnostic examination should remain only within the competence of the diagnostician and should not be communicated to the child and his parents.

Traditionally, the sociometry method is used to study interpersonal relationships within a small group. The term “sociometry” comes from the Latin words “socius” - friend, comrade and “metrum” - measurement, measure. Sociometry allows you to obtain data on how team members relate to each other based on mutual likes and dislikes.

The goals of using the sociometric procedure are:

Measuring the degree of cohesion-disunity in a group;

Identification of “sociometric positions”, that is, a designation of what hierarchical place in the group the study participants occupy;

Detection of intra-group “alliances”.

One of the key conditions for carrying out this technique is personal acquaintance of its participants. It is also worth paying attention to the fact that sociometric research can only be carried out when the members of the newly formed group have gotten to know each other well enough.

3.2 Study of interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities using the “Drawn Apperception Test” (PAT) technique

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective technique for personality research. One of the oldest and most widespread in the world. Created by H. Morgan and G. Murray in 1935. Subsequently, the technique became better known under the name of G. Murray, who made a significant contribution to its development. TAT stimulus material is a standard set of 31 tables: 30 black and white paintings and one empty table on which the subject can imagine any picture. The images used represent relatively vague situations that allow for ambiguous interpretation. At the same time, each of the drawings has a special stimulating power, provoking, for example, aggressive reactions or facilitating the manifestation of the subject’s attitudes in the field of family relationships. During the experiment, 20 paintings are presented in a certain sequence, selected from a standard set depending on gender and age (there are paintings for everyone, for women, men, boys and girls under 14 years old). It is possible to use abbreviated sets of specially selected paintings. Typically, the examination is carried out in 2 stages, 10 paintings per session, with an interval between sessions of no more than one day. The subject is asked to come up with a short story about what led to the situation depicted in the picture, what is happening at the present time, what the characters are thinking about, what the characters are feeling, how this situation will end.

There are different approaches to analyzing and interpreting data. There are many modifications of the TAT (for examining people of different cultural levels, adolescent delinquents, elderly and senile people, etc.), as well as methods based on the same basic principles that can be considered original. In domestic research, TAT was first used in the early 60s. at the Leningrad Research Psychoneurological Institute named after. V.M. Bekhterev to identify significant, primarily pathogenic, personality relationships, differential diagnosis of neuroses, psychoses and borderline states. Later, TAT began to be used in general psychological research.

The Drawing Apperception Test (PAT) is a more compact modified version of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by G. Murray. It takes less time for examination and is more adapted to the working conditions of a practical psychologist. And most importantly, new stimulus material has been developed for it. The test was developed by L.N. Sobchik.

The difference between this method is that the stimulus material is even less structured compared to TAT. There is no touch of the era, cultural and ethnic characteristics, shades of social significance that are clearly visible in TAT.

Compared to the TAT, the drawn apperception test may not have such a wide range of research capabilities.

Each picture presents a variant of an interpersonal relationship, and possibly an interpersonal conflict, which the subject interprets based on his own experience of interpersonal relationships. In this regard, psychological research using RAT is aimed at a more targeted selection of a psychocorrectional approach, not only focusing on the content side and sphere of the subject’s experiences, but also with an appeal to a certain linguistic and intellectual-cultural level of the personality of the person being consulted. The subject matter of the pictures is associated with the following trends. Dominance is the desire to influence people and lead them. Aggression is the desire to overcome the enemy, expel or humiliate him. Rejection - the desire to break off relationships, rudeness, intransigence. Autonomy is a tendency to avoid any restrictions, individualism. Adaptation – passive submission to external forces, shyness. Respect is the desire to obey and admire a strong personality. Success is the desire to quickly achieve a goal. The desire to be in the center is the desire to impress others. Play is optimism, activity, carelessness, and irresponsibility. Selfishness is a concern for personal success, painful pride. Sociability – respect for the opinions of others, concern for others, altruism. Searching for a patron - the need for advice, gentle treatment, lack of confidence in oneself and one’s prospects. Helping others - a pronounced feeling of pity for others, concern for children, a desire to help, to reassure. Avoiding punishment is the desire to suppress one’s immediate impulses and behave like a well-mannered person. Self-defense - protecting one’s rights, searching for the guilty among others. Order – the desire for cleanliness, increased accuracy.

The subject is given the task to examine each picture sequentially, according to numbering, while trying to give free rein to his imagination and compose a short story for each of them, which will reflect the answers to the following questions:

What's happening at the moment?

Who are these people?

What are they thinking and how are they feeling?

What led to this situation and how will it end?

Protective tendencies can manifest themselves in the form of somewhat monotonous plots where there is no conflict: we can talk about dancing or gymnastic exercises, yoga classes.

3.3Analysis of data obtained during the study using the “Drawing Apperception Test” (PAT) method

The basis for the study was Municipal budgetary preschool educational institution, compensatory kindergarten No. 203, Yekaterinburg.

The study was conducted with preschool children.

The goal was set to identify the characteristics of the formation of interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities.

The analysis of the obtained data using the RAT method is mainly carried out at a qualitative level. Appropriate and inappropriate responses to the content of the pictures were examined (Appendix).

In preschoolers with intellectual disabilities, the number of inappropriate responses significantly exceeds responses in the form of defensive reactions, partial and complete refusals to answer.

In pictures where more than two people are depicted, children with intellectual disabilities select only two figures for the story; the third object is not considered by the children (Figure 2, 5, 7). Preschoolers with intellectual disabilities consider interpersonal relationships in a dyad, because are in an egocentric position, it is difficult for them to realize that interpersonal relationships can be built in a triad, etc. Most often, after presenting instructions, children with intellectual disabilities talk about the interaction of adults.

Analyzing the data, it was concluded that the use of the technique in relation to preschool children with intellectual disabilities is not advisable, because Due to the peculiarities of mental development, children are not able to adequately perceive instructions and navigate the task. This is indicated not by the perception of the third character by children with intellectual disabilities, but by inadequate answers to questions. In addition, in preschoolers with intellectual disabilities, speech development and the ability to understand the proposed instructions are quite low, and interpersonal relationships are at the stage of formation and have a number of features:

Unformed need for interpersonal relationships;

Hypertrophied egocentrism;

Lack of wide contact with peers.

CONCLUSION

Interpersonal relationships are understood as: subjectively experienced relationships between people, manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication.

In preschool age, these are: functional-role relationships with peers, where the adult acts as a bearer of norms and forms of behavior that the child learns through relationships with peers; basic norms and stereotypes governing interpersonal relationships are laid down and formed; the motives for interpersonal attractiveness are not realized; the initiator of the relationship is an adult; contacts (relationships) are not long-term; interpersonal connections are relatively unstable; in their actions, children are guided by the opinions of adults; tend to identify with significant people in their lives (close people), peers in their immediate circle; specificity manifests itself in mental contamination and imitation of emotional manifestations, assessments and judgments about people.

As a result of the theoretical study, the features of the formation of interpersonal relationships in children with intellectual disabilities were highlighted. In preschool age this is: the unformed need for such communication; the other child is not the object of distant observation; stereotypes in establishing interpersonal relationships; Inappropriate reactions in communication are frequent; lack of formation of interpersonal perception.

An introductory review of a number of methods aimed at studying interpersonal relationships in a children's team was conducted. In this case, the choice was made on the drawn apperception test (PAT) developed by L.M. Sobchik. This is a more compact modified version of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by G. Murray.

The set goal of identifying the characteristics of interpersonal relationships in preschool children with intellectual disabilities and analyzing the RAT diagnostic methodology was achieved in the process of solving the problems specified in the introduction.

APPLICATION

Picture 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

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Figure 7.

Figure 8.

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Abstract: The article discusses the theoretical aspects of interpersonal relationships from the point of view of different authors. A theoretical analysis of senior preschool age was carried out, taking into account all the features of this age. The features of interpersonal relationships in older preschool age are revealed.
Key words: interpersonal relationships, senior preschool age

Volgograd State University, Volgograd
Volgograd state university, Volgograd

Abstract: The article considers the theoretical aspects of interpersonal relations from the point of view of different authors. The theoretical analysis of senior preschool age taking into account all of the features of this age is done. The research brings to light the peculiarities of interpersonal relations in the preschool years.
Keywords: interpersonal relations, advanced preschool age

Relationships with other people form the basic fabric of human life. The problem of interpersonal relationships among preschoolers was and is still relevant today. According to S.L. Rubinstein “...the first of the first conditions of human life is another person. The attitude towards another person, towards people, constitutes the basic fabric of human life, its core. A person’s “heart” is all woven from his relationships with other people; The main content of a person’s mental, inner life is connected with them. It is these relationships that give rise to the most powerful experiences and actions. The attitude towards another is the center of the spiritual and moral development of the individual and largely determines the moral value of a person.” .

Interpersonal relationships are a system of attitudes, orientations and expectations of group members relative to each other, determined by the content and organization of joint activities and the values ​​on which people’s communication is based.

Interpersonal relationships are a subjectively experienced, personally significant, emotional and cognitive reflection of people of each other in the process of interpersonal interaction.

The nature of this phenomenon is very different from the nature of social relations. Their most important feature is their emotional basis. This suggests that interpersonal relationships arise and are formed on the basis of certain feelings that people have towards each other.

The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships consists of three types of emotional manifestations: feelings, emotions, affects. Interpersonal relationships are greatly influenced by a person’s focus on the external or internal world (extroversion or introversion).

Thus, people not only perceive each other, but they also form special relationships among themselves, which give rise to a varied collage of feelings - from rejection of a particular person to sympathy and even great love for him.

In a group, team, and in society in general, interpersonal relationships are built on likes and dislikes, attractiveness and preference, in a word - on selection criteria. (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Phenomena of interpersonal relationships

If the planned activity is important for a person, then it presupposes longer, high-quality and correct communication, and thus the selection criteria become stronger.

Interpersonal relationships and their content in psychology are interpreted in many ways. There are many approaches to considering such a broad phenomenon both in domestic and foreign psychology.

In the psychological dictionary of A.V. Petrovsky and M.K. Yaroshevsky interprets this phenomenon as follows: interpersonal relationships are considered as a system of attitudes, expectations and orientations of group members towards each other, which are based on communication between people and are determined by the values ​​in the organization and content of joint activities. According to V.N. Kunitsyna, interpersonal relationships are a personally significant, subjectively experienced, emotional and cognitive reflection of people of each other in the process of interpersonal interaction. The most important feature that distinguishes them from simple interaction, from simple communication is the emotional basis. They are quite dynamic in their content and structure. By analyzing the dynamics of these parameters, such as emotional cohesion, value-orientation unity and sociometry as a group structure, one can judge how a particular group is developing as a whole.

As for older preschool age, according to A.A. Krylov, this age is considered from a psychological point of view as the initial stage in the formation of the subject’s cognitive and practical activity. This period of a preschooler’s life is special and therefore very important if we consider it from the perspective of the development and formation of moral behavior, as well as social forms of the psyche. This age ends with a transition from an emotionally direct relationship with people and the world around us to relationships built on the basis of mastering moral assessments, legalized standard rules and normal behavior.

Senior preschool age occupies a central place in the mental development of a child: at 5-6 years of age, completely new psychological mechanisms for performing one or another child’s activity and behavior begin to develop. These features determine the structure of the psychological portrait of an older preschooler: studying the characteristics of the cognitive sphere, considering the characteristics of the child’s personality development, establishing the characteristics of the activities and mutual communication of older preschool children in a team.

Now let's look at the main characteristics of a preschooler in more detail.

As already mentioned, the development of the cognitive sphere of children 5-6 years old has its own characteristics. At this age, children's attention develops in parallel with many other characteristics. Memory is characterized by a smooth transition from direct and involuntary to mediated and already voluntary recall and memorization. The child’s verbal-logical thinking, formed before the end of this age period, assumes that the child knows how to use words and understands the logic of reasoning.

As for the development of various types of activities that a child can engage in, they are not formed immediately, but step by step, and by the end of senior preschool age it is quite possible to observe almost all types of games that exist in children before they come to school.

Individual stages of the consistent improvement of children’s games, learning and work at this stage can be observed, figuratively speaking, dividing preschool childhood into 3 periods for analysis: junior preschool age (3–4 years), middle preschool age (4–5 years) and senior preschool age (5 – 6 years old). From 4 to 6 years old, children play role-playing games. For them, they are interesting because they contain a variety of themes and plots, roles, and game actions that are inherent in the game and implemented in the game using the rules. In older preschool age, construction games (Legos, mosaics, puzzles, etc.) begin to smoothly develop into work activities, in which the child creates something interesting, constructs, builds something useful that he needs in life and in everyday life.

Thus, having analyzed the psychological characteristics of a preschooler from his birth to the end of senior preschool age, we can say that he has special characteristics that are the main qualities of this age stage and create new conditions for the transition to the next stage of the child’s development. The cognitive sphere of an older preschooler is distinguished by the transition of all the child’s processes to voluntariness, from perception to thinking. Children's thinking already at this age stage is realized on the basis of the principle of systematicity.

In psychology, there are different approaches to considering the interpersonal relationships of preschoolers.

Interpersonal relationships of older preschoolers have their own unique specifics: children's communication with adults fades into the background, as the need arises for situational business cooperation with peers; In contact with each other, children quite easily and quickly find a common language, and among them, preferred and rejected children already clearly appear.

Senior preschool age differs from other ages in its rich communicative actions, emotionality and richness; communication develops in a non-standard way due to the unregulated acts of communication, and this is what allows children to communicate easily and without stress through play activities, which at this age are the leading activity.

In addition to the need for cooperation, older preschoolers clearly have a need for peer recognition and respect. The children are very friendly, treat each other with attention, are happy to help and easily engage in mutual assistance. In accordance with this, such communication acquires notes of sincerity, becomes more sensual, emotionally colored in bright warm colors, relaxed and spontaneous, and, what is important, such communication acquires the features of real children's friendship.

An innovation that becomes noticeable when observing the communication of peers is the ability to see in a peer not only how he manifests himself in certain situations, but also some psychological aspects - his moods, preferences and desires. Preschoolers can not only talk about themselves, but can also turn to their peers for questions that interest them, and are inquisitive about their affairs, needs and desires. Their communication becomes out of context, acquiring a non-situational character.

Senior preschool age is specific in that it is during this period of a child’s life that the very first real childhood friendship appears. And in kindergarten, all children have the opportunity to begin this friendship for the first time. Preschoolers who have friends have more positive self-esteem and are more confident in group behavior.

Thus, interpersonal relationships in preschool age have their own characteristics: they are built on the selective preferences of children; children's communication with adults fades into the background, as the need arises for situational business cooperation with peers; In contact with each other, children quite easily and quickly find a common language, and among them, preferred and rejected children already clearly appear. Senior preschool age is characterized by a wealth of communications, an emotional component, richness, non-standard communication and interaction, which allows children to easily communicate through play activities, which are the leading activity at this age. Also during this period of life, the first childhood friendship appears.

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The origins of interpersonal relationships in infancy. Relationships with other people begin and develop most intensively in early and preschool age. The experience of first relationships with other people is the foundation for the further development of the child’s personality and, above all, his ethical development. This largely determines the characteristics of a person’s self-awareness, his attitude to the world, his behavior and well-being among people. Many negative and destructive phenomena among young people observed recently (cruelty, increased aggressiveness, alienation, etc.) have their origins in early and preschool childhood. Smirnova E.O. in her research suggests considering the development of children’s relationships with each other at the earliest stages of ontogenesis in order to understand their age-related patterns and the psychological nature of the deformations that arise along this path.

In the studies of S.Yu. Meshcheryakova, relying on the origins of the personal attitude towards oneself and towards another in infancy, determines that “even before the birth of a child, there are already two principles in the mother’s attitude towards him - objective (as an object of care and beneficial influences) and subjective (as a full-fledged personality and the subject of communication). On the one hand, the expectant mother is preparing to care for the child, purchasing necessary things, taking care of her health, preparing a room for the baby, etc. On the other hand, she is already communicating with the unborn child - by his movements she guesses his condition, desires, addresses him, in a word, perceives him as a full-fledged and very important person. Moreover, the severity of these principles varies significantly among different mothers: some mothers are mainly concerned with preparing for childbirth and purchasing the necessary equipment, others are more focused on communicating with the child. In the first months of a baby’s life, these features of the mother’s relationship have a significant formative influence on his relationship with his mother and his overall mental development. The most important and favorable condition for the formation of the baby’s first relationship is the subjective, personal component of the mother’s relationship. It is she who ensures sensitivity to all manifestations of the baby, a quick and adequate response to his states, “adjustment” to his moods, and interpretation of all his actions as addressed to the mother.” Thus, all this creates an atmosphere of emotional communication in which the mother, in the first days of the child’s life, speaks for both partners and thereby awakens in the child a sense of himself as a subject and the need for communication. Moreover, this attitude is absolutely positive and selfless. Although caring for a child is associated with numerous difficulties and worries, this everyday aspect is not included in the relationship between the child and the mother. The first half of life is a completely unique period in the life of both a child and an adult. The only content of such a period is the expression of the attitude towards another. At this time, the subjective, personal principle clearly dominates in the relationship of the infant with the mother. It is very important that the child needs an adult on his own, regardless of his subject attributes, his competence or social role. The baby is not at all interested in the mother's appearance, her financial or social status - all these things simply do not exist for him. He highlights, first of all, the integral personality of an adult, addressed to him. That is why this type of relationship can certainly be called personal. In such communication, an affective connection between the child and his mother is born, which gives rise to his sense of self: he begins to feel confident in himself, in his uniqueness and need for another. This sense of self, like the affective connection with the mother, is already the internal property of the baby and becomes the foundation of his self-awareness.

In the second half of the year, with the appearance of interest in objects and manipulative activities, the child’s attitude towards an adult changes (the relationship begins to be mediated by objects and objective actions). The attitude towards the mother already depends on the content of communication; the child begins to differentiate the positive and negative influences of the adult, and react differently to close and strangers. An image of your physical self appears (recognizing yourself in the mirror). All this may indicate the emergence of an objective principle in the image of oneself and in relation to another. At the same time, the personal beginning (which emerged in the first half of the year) is clearly reflected in the child’s objective activity, his sense of self and in relationships with close adults. The desire to share their impressions with a close adult and the feeling of security in alarming situations, which is observed in children from a normal family, testifies to the internal connection and involvement of mother and child, which opens up new opportunities for exploring the world, gives confidence in oneself and one’s competence. In this regard, we note that children raised in an orphanage and who did not receive the necessary personal, subjective attitude from their mother in the first half of the year are characterized by reduced activity, stiffness, they are not inclined to share their impressions with an adult and perceive him as an external means of physical protection from possible danger . All this indicates that the absence of affective-personal connections with a close adult leads to serious deformations in the child’s self-awareness - he is deprived of the internal support of his existence, which significantly limits his ability to explore the world and express his activity.

Thus, the underdevelopment of the personal principle in relationships with a close adult inhibits the development of a substantive attitude towards the surrounding world and towards oneself. However, under favorable developmental conditions, already in the first year of life the child develops both components of the relationship to other people and to himself - personal and objective.

Features of interpersonal relationships in children at an early age. Considering the features of communication and interpersonal relationships in young children from 1 to 3 years old. L.N. Galiguzova argues that in the first forms of attitude towards a peer and first contacts with him, it is reflected, first of all, in the experience of one’s similarity with another child (they reproduce his movements, facial expressions, as if reflecting him and being reflected in him). Moreover, such mutual recognition and reflection bring stormy, joyful emotions to the kids. Imitating the actions of a peer can be a means of attracting attention and the basis for joint actions. In these actions, kids are not limited by any norms in showing their initiative (they tumble, take bizarre poses, make unusual exclamations, come up with unique sound combinations, etc.). Such freedom and unregulated communication of young children suggests that a peer helps the child to show his originality, to express his originality. In addition to very specific content, contacts between children have another distinctive feature: they are almost always accompanied by vivid emotions. A comparison of children’s communication in different situations showed that the most favorable situation for children’s interaction is the situation of “pure communication”, i.e. when children are face to face with each other. The introduction of a toy into a communication situation at this age weakens interest in a peer: children manipulate objects without paying attention to a peer, or quarrel over a toy. Adult participation also distracts children from each other. This is due to the fact that the need for objective actions and communication with an adult prevails over interaction with a peer. At the same time, the need to communicate with a peer already develops in the third year of life and has a very specific content. Communication between young children can be called emotional-practical interaction. A child’s communication with peers, which occurs in a free, unregulated form, creates optimal conditions for self-awareness and self-knowledge. By perceiving their reflection in another, kids better distinguish themselves and receive, as it were, another confirmation of their integrity and activity. Receiving feedback and support from a peer in his games and undertakings, the child realizes his originality and uniqueness, which stimulates the child’s initiative. It is typical that during this period children react very weakly and superficially to the individual qualities of another child (his appearance, skills, abilities, etc. ), they do not seem to notice the actions and states of their peers. At the same time, the presence of a peer increases the child’s overall activity and emotionality. Their attitude towards another is not yet mediated by any objective actions; it is affective, direct and non-evaluative. The child recognizes himself in another, which gives him a sense of community and involvement with the other. In such communication there is a feeling of immediate community and connection with others.

The objective qualities of another child (his nationality, his property, clothes, etc.) do not matter at all. Kids do not notice who his friend is - a black or a Chinese, rich or poor, capable or retarded. Common actions, emotions (mostly positive) and moods that children easily transmit from each other create a feeling of unity with equal and equal people. It is this sense of community that can subsequently become the source and foundation of such an important human quality as morality. Deeper human relationships are built on this basis.

However, at an early age this community has a purely external, situational character. Against the background of similarities, for each child his own individuality is highlighted most clearly. “Look at your peer,” the child seems to objectify himself and highlight specific properties and qualities in himself. Such objectification prepares the further course of development of interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal relationships in preschool age.

The type of emotional-practical interaction lasts up to 4 years. A decisive change in attitude towards peers occurs in the middle of preschool age. The age of five is not usually considered critical in developmental psychology. However, many facts obtained in various studies indicate that this is a very important turning point in the development of a child’s personality, and the manifestations of this turning point are especially acute in the sphere of relationships with peers. There is a need for cooperation and joint action. Children's communication begins to be mediated by object-based or play activities. In 4-5 year old preschoolers, emotional involvement in the actions of another child will sharply increase. During play or joint activities, children closely and jealously observe the actions of their peers and evaluate them. Children's reactions to an adult's assessment also become more acute and emotional. During this period, empathy for peers increases sharply. However, this empathy is often inadequate - the successes of a peer can upset and offend the child, while his failures delight him. It is at this age that children begin to brag, envy, compete, and demonstrate their advantages. The number and severity of children's conflicts is increasing sharply. Tension in relationships with peers increases, and ambivalence of behavior, shyness, touchiness, and aggressiveness appear more often than at other ages.

The preschooler begins to relate to himself through comparison with another child. Only by comparison with a peer can one evaluate and establish oneself as the owner of certain advantages.

If two- to three-year-old children, comparing themselves and others, look for similarities or common actions, then five-year-olds look for differences, while the evaluative moment prevails (who is better, who is worse), and the main thing for them is to prove their superiority. The peer becomes an isolated, opposed creature and the subject of constant comparison with oneself. Moreover, the correlation of oneself with another occurs not only in the real communication of children, but also in the inner life of the child. A persistent need for recognition, self-affirmation and self-evaluation through the eyes of another appears, which become important components of self-awareness. All this, naturally, increases the tension and conflict in children's relationships. Moral qualities acquire particular significance at this age. The main bearer of these qualities and their connoisseur is the adult for the child. At the same time, the implementation of prosocial behavior at this age faces significant difficulties and causes an internal conflict: to give in or not to give in, to give or not to give, etc. This conflict is between the “inner adult” and the “inner peer.”

Thus, the middle of preschool childhood (4-5 years) is the age when the objective component of the self-image is intensively formed, when the child, through comparison with others, objectifies, objectifies and defines his self. By older preschool age, the attitude towards peers again changes significantly . By the end of preschool age, emotional involvement in the actions and experiences of a peer increases, empathy for others becomes more pronounced and adequate; Schadenfreude, envy, and competitiveness appear much less frequently and not as acutely as at the age of five. Many children are already able to empathize with both the success and failures of their peers and are ready to help and support them. Children's activity aimed at peers (help, consolation, concessions) increases significantly. There is a desire not only to respond to the experiences of a peer, but also to understand them. By the age of seven, manifestations of children's shyness and demonstrativeness are significantly reduced, and the severity and intensity of preschool children's conflicts is reduced.

So, in older preschool age, the number of prosocial actions, emotional involvement in the activities and experiences of a peer increases. As many studies show, this is associated with the emergence of arbitrary behavior and the assimilation of moral norms.

As observations show (E.O. Smirnova, V.G. Utrobina), the behavior of older preschoolers is not always voluntarily regulated. This is evidenced, in particular, by instantaneous decision-making. According to E.O. Smirnova and V.G. Utrobina: “Prosocial actions of older preschoolers, unlike 4- to 5-year-olds, are often accompanied by positive emotions addressed to their peers. In most cases, older preschoolers are emotionally involved in the actions of their peers.” If 4-5-year-old children willingly, following an adult, condemned the actions of their peers, then 6-year-olds, on the contrary, seemed to unite with their friend in their “confrontation” with the adult. All this may indicate that the prosocial actions of older preschoolers are aimed not at a positive assessment of an adult or at compliance with moral standards, but directly at another child.

Another traditional explanation for the growth of prosociality in preschool age is the development of decentering, due to which the child becomes able to understand the “point of view” of another.

By the age of six, many children have a direct and selfless desire to help a peer, give something or give in to him.

For the child, a peer has become not only a subject of comparison with himself, but also a valuable, integral personality in his own right. It can be assumed that these changes in attitude towards peers reflect certain shifts in the preschooler’s self-awareness.

A peer becomes an internal other for an older preschooler. By the end of preschool age, children's attitude toward themselves and others becomes more personal. The peer becomes the subject of communication and treatment. The subjective component in the relationship of a six-seven-year-old child to other children transforms his self-awareness. The child's self-awareness goes beyond the limits of its object characteristics and to the level of experience of another. Another child no longer becomes only an opposing being, not only a means of self-affirmation, but also the content of his own Self. That is why children willingly help their peers, empathize with them and do not perceive other people’s successes as their own failure. This subjective attitude towards oneself and towards peers develops in many children towards the end of preschool age, and this is what makes the child popular and preferred among peers.

Having examined the features of the normal age-related development of a child’s interpersonal relationships with other children, we can assume that these features are not always realized in the development of specific children. It is widely recognized that there is considerable individual variation in children's attitudes toward peers.

peer interpersonal preschooler social game

So, the theoretical study of this problem made it possible to reveal various approaches to understanding interpersonal relationships, both the selective preferences of children and the understanding of others, through consideration of the psychological basis of communication and interaction between people.

Interpersonal relationships have their own structural units, motives and needs. Some age-related dynamics in the development of motives for communicating with peers have been determined; the development of relationships in a group is based on the need for communication, and this need changes with age. It is satisfied differently by different children.

In the research of Repina T.A. and Papir O.O. the kindergarten group was considered as an integral entity, representing a single functional system with its own structure and dynamics. In which there is a system of interpersonal hierarchical connections. Its members in accordance with their business and personal qualities, value orientations of the group, determining which qualities are most highly valued in it.

The attitude towards another person is inextricably linked with the person’s attitude towards himself and with the nature of his self-awareness. Research by Smirnova E.O. the unity of interpersonal relationships and self-awareness indicates that they are based on two contradictory principles - objective and subjective. In real human relationships, these two principles cannot exist in their pure form and constantly “flow” into one another.

The general characteristics of children with problematic forms of attitude towards peers are highlighted: shy, aggressive, demonstrative, touchy. Features of their self-esteem, behavior, personality traits and the nature of their relationship with peers. Problematic forms of behavior of children in relationships with peers cause interpersonal conflict, the main reason for these conflicts is the dominance of one’s own value.

The nature of interpersonal relationships depends on the development of morality in the child’s behavior. The basis of moral behavior is a special, subjective attitude towards a peer, not mediated by the subject’s own expectations and assessments. This or that position of a child in the system of personal relationships not only depends on certain qualities of his personality, but, in turn, contributes to the development of these qualities.

The age-related features of the formation and development of interpersonal relationships are considered. The dynamics of their development from manipulative actions through emotional and practical interaction to a subjective attitude towards peers. An adult plays an important role in the development and establishment of these relationships.