In the second half of the 19th century. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century

Great reforms of Alexander 2. All of them are connected with the abolition of serfdom. Local government reforms: zemstvos and city councils are created. Peasants also participated in the zemstvo elections, but they chose according to a multi-stage system.

Judicial reform. The court becomes public and adversarial. A profession appears - lawyer. A jury trial appeared. Gradually, the most important cases were removed from the jurisdiction of the jury. because the government concluded that such courts issue acquittals unjustifiably . Vera Zasulich, who shot at a police general and the jury acquitted her, despite the fact that she did not deny her guilt. But the trial showed that the general she shot at was a bad person. After this, they decided not to rely on a jury trial. Corporal punishment was abolished, with the exception of the verdict of peasant volost courts.

Cancellation of recruitment and reduction of service life. From 25 to 6 years. Active discussion of reforms begins in society , publicity appears, and this leads to the activation of the opposition and revolutionaries.

In 60-70 the most popular was populism. The main idea of ​​the populists is movement towards socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the peasant community. Lavrov and others believed that it was necessary to prepare the people for revolution. Second direction - rebellious, leader Bakunin. They believed that the people had been ready for revolution for a long time; they needed to start an uprising. 3rd direction - conspiratorial. Leader - Tkachev. They believed that the people were not ready for revolution and would never be ready. So you just need to organize a group of conspirators and stage a coup.

By the mid-60s, a revolutionary youth group, which was headed Ishutin. IN 1862 Karakozov shoots Alexander 2. After this, he was arrested, repressions began, and many reforms were stopped. But soon a new organization emerged, headed by Nechaev. He creates a canned organization, divided into 5s.

In 1874 famous going to the people. The result of propaganda was that most of the propagandists were arrested by the peasants themselves. At the end of the 70s, an organization appeared that made bet on terror. A hunt is being organized for Alexander 2.

In 1871 On March 1, Alexander 2 was killed. Comes to power Alexander 3 who rules with 1881-1894 . Alexander 3 first of all strives to restore order in the country, suppresses organizations, introduces a state of emergency in many regions of the country, in addition, a number of reforms were limited, in particular the zemstvo reform, the control of governors over zemstvos was strengthened, a special position appeared - zemstvo bosses, which controlled peasant institutions. There is a crisis of populism. Marxism is gradually gaining popularity. Its main idea is the most advanced layer is the industrial workers. By the end of the 19th century, Marxists were most popular among revolutionaries.

36. Second half of the 19th century – beginning of the 20th century

Treaty of Paris 1856. Achieve a revision of the terms of the Paris peace. It was necessary to find allies, and those who could help us. And initially at the end of the 50s of the 19th century Russia is getting closer to France. France was one of the guarantors of this peace.

Border between Russia and Austria-Hungary. The parties came to an unclear agreement. France did not clearly promise that it would look into the Paris peace disclosures. War between France and Austria-Hungary. Bottom line- emergence of Italy. The lands of Italy were part of Austria-Hungary.

France is a weakening ally. In the 60s, Russia finds a new ally and draws closer to the enemy of France - Prussia. At the head of Prussia the famous Bismarck. He believed that his country should be friends with Russia. There are German lands around Prussia. Russia and Prussia enter into an agreement. Next came the Franco-Prussian War.

The French political system was liquidated. France ceased to be a monarchy, and never was again. 1871 is a republic. Unification of Germany. United German Empire. Russia again received the rights to maintain a fleet in Chernobyl. Union of Three Emperors. Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary.

Russo-Turkish War(1877-1878). We defeated the Turkish army. As a result of this war– It is Russia that dominates the Balkans. The West did not like this. In the summer of '78 the Berlin Congress. The Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Russia was obliged to withdraw its troops from the Balkans. Russia was shown that it is not the master. The alliance of the three emperors began to fall apart. Austria-Hungary was most opposed to Russia because it had an interest in the Balkans.

In the early 80s of the 19th century, a new union emerged, which became known as Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. This was already a military alliance. At the end of the 80s of the 19th century Russian-German reinsurance agreement. Bismarck resigns. Russia draws closer to France in the 90s of the 19th century. Military alliance. Europe and the world are preparing for war. Attempts to save the situation.

A conference is being held in The Hague. Decisions were made on the humane treatment of prisoners of war and on the prohibition of barbaric weapons. Far East. Contradictions between the three powers. Russia, Japan, USA. Russo-Japanese War. 1907 Russian-English agreement.

1912 First Balkan War. Türkiye is weakening and the Slavic countries tried to take advantage of this. Bulgaria became the most powerful state in the Balkans. The Russian Empire in the First World War. The Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey, and then Bulgaria joined it. Everyone was preparing for a short war. Spring-summer 1915 offensive on the Russian Front. The worst year for the Russian army. Loss of the Baltic states, Poland, Galicia.

Result 1915 – The German flag was finally torn down. 1916 – Brusilovsky breakthrough in the Austrian Navy. In the rear the situation is getting worse and worse. There are very big problems with food. Hunger in the cities. The criticism of Nicholas 2 begins. Rasputin was the same lightning rod, and he was killed. At the beginning of 1917, a revolution occurs in Russia.

Alexander ascended the throne after the death of his father in 1855. The Russian press and universities received more freedom.

As a result of the unsuccessful Crimean War (1853-1856), the empire found itself on the edge of a social and economic abyss: its finances and economy were upset, the technological gap from the advanced countries of the world was increasing, and the population remained poor and illiterate.

The request for reforms was made by Alexander II in March 1856, shortly after his accession to the throne.

In the mid-nineteenth century, Russia was the largest state in the world. The vast majority of the Russian population were peasants. The main categories of the peasantry were appanage, state and landowner peasants.

The leading organizational unit of the peasant economy was the peasant family - tax, In corvée farming the cultivation of the lord's field was carried out by the free labor of serfs. At quitrent farming serf peasants were released on quitrent: they could engage in any type of economic activity, an annual payment to the landowner. There were cases when quitrent peasants became richer than their landowners. The noble households were also in a state of deep crisis. Russian agriculture was in need of radical reform.

On a national scale, small-scale production predominated, represented by home industry and crafts (flax spinning, wool processing, linen weaving and felting). In the middle of the 19th century. The specialization of small industry is increasing, and specialized centers are appearing in a number of regions, in which commodity producers of one specific industry are concentrated. Large industry in the middle of the 19th century. represented by manufactories and factories. The country began industrial revolution. The gap between the Russian state and Europe was enormous. The most important reason for the ineffective work of Russian industry was serfdom. A negative factor was the lack of qualified labor.

Reforms

The beginning of one of the central reforms dates back to 1864; new “Judicial Statutes” were issued, which changed the procedure of legal proceedings in the empire. Before the reform, the courts were under the strong influence of the authorities. According to the judicial reform, instead of class courts, a court was introduced extra-class. Judges were given irremovability and independence. Was introduced adversarial court, which made it possible for an objective and detailed investigation. In addition, the court became vowel The court system was also changed - to deal with minor cases - world courts. To analyze small cases that arise among the peasantry - volost courts, d for the analysis of more serious cases in provincial cities - district courts with criminal and civil branches. The Senate was assigned the function of general supervision over the state of legal proceedings in the country.

Simultaneously with the change in the system of courts and legal proceedings, the system of punishments was significantly softened. Thus, various types of corporal punishment were abolished.

In 1874 it was made public Charter on universal conscription. Previously, the Russian army was formed as a result of recruitment; wealthy people could pay off 25 years of military service by hiring a recruit. According to the new law, all men who turned 21 years old had to be conscripted for military service. Those recruited were required to serve six years in the ranks and nine years in the reserves. Then, until they reached the age of 40, they had to be registered in the militia.

The system of soldier training has changed. The soldiers were taught to fulfill the sacred duty of protecting their Fatherland, they were taught to read and write

Education reform began in 1863, when it was approved University Charter - the professorial corporation was given self-government, and the Council of Professors at each university could elect all university officials. The first attempt in Russia to create a higher educational institution for women dates back to 1863.

Access to gymnasiums has become equally open to. There were two types of gymnasiums - classical and real. IN classic The study of the humanities was considered the main one. IN real Gymnasiums emphasized the study of mathematics and natural sciences. In 1871, Emperor Alexander signed a new charter for gymnasiums - the classical gymnasium is the only type of general education and non-class school. Since the late 50s, women's gymnasiums for students from all classes, as well as women's diocesan schools for daughters of clergymen.. Under Alexander II, a new type of secular primary school was created - zemstvo, who were under the care of zemstvos and quickly became numerous. Appeared free peasant schools, created by peasant societies. continued to exist church parish schools. In all provinces were created public Sunday schools. Education in all types of primary schools was free

The general state list of income and expenses was now subject to annual publication, i.e. Budget transparency was introduced. A system of nationwide control has been created. Estimates for all departments for the next year were regularly and centrally reviewed. It was also introduced "unitity of the cash desk" - an order in which the movement of all monetary amounts in the treasuries of the empires was subject to the general order of the Ministry of Finance. The banking system in the country was being reformed: in 1860 the State Bank was created. Taxation reform was also carried out. One of the most important changes was the abolition of wine farming. all wine put on sale was taxed excise duty - a special tax in favor of the treasury.

In 1875, when the Serbian uprising broke out against the Turks. This contributed to the spread of patriotic feelings in Russian society. At the beginning of 1877, on the initiative of Russia, a conference of European diplomats was held, which demanded that the Sultan concede. The Sultan refused. Then in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey. In the winter of 1878, the Sultan asked for peace. A preliminary peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. The terms of the San Stefano Peace Treaty were protested by England and Austria, who did not want Russia to strengthen in this region. At the Berlin Congress, the articles of the treaty were revised. By Berlin Treaty ( July 1878), it led to a deterioration in relations between Russia and the leading European countries England, Austria, and Germany. Thus, Russia was unable to help the Slavic peoples and strengthen its influence in the Balkans and remained almost isolated, without reliable allies and friends.

Consequences of reforms

The country's economy revived, the growth of the urban population accelerated, and cities began to play a more significant role in the development of the country. Road construction and transport began to develop at a faster pace than before. The construction of a network of roads made it possible to increase the turnover of Russia's foreign trade, and the number of trade and industrial enterprises increased. The state of the state has improved. budget.

The nobility lost its monopoly position in the country, although senior state officials were appointed from among the nobles. officials and nobles headed the governing bodies. The nobles were experiencing a severe financial crisis. The lands of the nobles gradually passed to the peasants and the commercial and industrial class.

Ruin of the nobility The redistribution of land ownership and the growth of anti-government sentiments among noble youth became the most important result of the transformations of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

Russian society now consisted of classes with equal civil rights. Everyone was equally called up for military service and could engage in any activity on an equal basis. The process of democratization of society became the most important consequence of Alexander's reforms. For some igilism was a life credo. Being critical of the existing system, they did not consider it obligatory for themselves to obey the established rules. Magazines played the greatest role in propaganda work in the 50-60s.

Revolutionary and anti-government sentiments sharply increased in society. Clandestine organizations were also formed with the goal of fighting against the existing regime as a whole and personally against Emperor Alexander II. Most of them were concentrated in St. Petersburg and Moscow. In 1861 the organization was created "Land and Freedom" advocated the convening of a classless people's assembly and an elected government, full self-government of peasant communities and the creation of a voluntary federation of regions. A secret revolutionary circle of Ishutinites adjoined it; they set as their task the preparation of a revolutionary coup in Russia. Member of the Ishutin circle Karakozov April 4, 1866 shot at Alexander II at the gates of the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg. Karakozov was arrested and executed. The shot led to mass arrests and increased censorship. The government has moved away from reforms.

In the 70s, the revolutionary movement in Russia grew and took on an increasingly extremist character. At the beginning of the late 70s, two new organizations were formed on the basis of “Land and Freedom”: "Black redistribution" who wanted to achieve redistribution of land in favor of peasants and nationalization of land, and "People's Will" putting at the forefront the political struggle, the destruction of the autocracy, the introduction of democratic freedoms and terror against the highest officials in the state. The main “object” was Alexander II. Under these conditions, the “Supreme Administrative Commission” was established. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II died - in St. Petersburg, the People's Will blew up the royal carriage with a bomb.

The era of great liberal reforms is over.

Alexander III His son Alexander III. Alexander III considered his main goal to be the strengthening of autocratic power and state order. The main direction of his domestic policy is to suppress revolutionary uprisings in the country and revise the laws adopted under Alexander II in order to make their further spread impossible.

Alexander dismissed some ministers, and Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich. Of the persons close to the throne, he especially stood out K.P. Pobedonostsev(1827-1907). He considered the main direction to be the creation of a strong monarchical Russia through the restoration of churchliness in Russian life: He played a significant role in domestic politics V. K. Plehve(1864-1904), Minister of the Interior. Thanks to his actions, all personal freedoms in the country were limited. Censorship was also tightened.

The government has carried out important reforms in the field taxation And finance. IN In 1885 the poll tax was abolished. Various taxes were also introduced (land, insurance). In 1888, the state budget became deficit-free.

The government continued to pay great attention agricultural sector - the main sector of the country's economy. Efforts were aimed at easing the situation of the peasants. The Peasant Land Bank was created to help peasants buy and sell land. A number of laws were issued that went down in history as counter-reforms - they tied the peasants to the rural community and the landowner's estate, and limited the economic freedom of the peasants. Introduction of the institute in 1889 zemstvo chiefs,- strengthened government guardianship over the peasants. The same goal was pursued by the publication published in 1890. new regulations on zemstvos - The role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions was strengthened. N new regulations on city self-government in 1892 it strengthened the rights of the administration.

To support the nobles, in 1885 it was established Noble land bank..

To streamline relations between workers and factory owners, it was adopted factory legislation- systems of fines for misconduct. For the first time, the length of the working day was legally stipulated. established working standards for women and children.

The tsarist administration took steps to develop domestic industry. Foreign capital was attracted to the country (ferrous metallurgy and the mining industry). Foreign capital determined the development of mechanical engineering and the electrical industry. The industrial revolution continued in the country.

The government's priority was the construction of railways. Already in the 90s, the railway network covered almost half of all Russian cities and connected Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, the main type of transport was horse-drawn, and the type of roads was unpaved, which hampered the economic development of the country.

The most common type of urban settlements were small towns.

In the second half of the 19th century. In the western and central regions of the empire, industry developed much faster. The development of the domestic market and the growth of agricultural marketability had an impact on the relationship between Russia and other states.

Foreign policy The era of 1881-1894 turned out to be calm for Russia: Russia did not fight with other states. In the second half of the 19th century. Its territorial growth continued. In the 50-60s, it included Kazakh and Kyrgyz lands. By 1885, the entire Central Asia had already become part of the Russian Empire. In 1887 and 1895 Agreements were concluded between Russia and England that determined the border with Afghanistan.

Russia continued to import machinery and equipment and a variety of consumer goods, and exported mainly agricultural products - grain, hemp, flax, timber, and livestock products.

The fall in grain prices had a negative impact on the relationship between Russian and German landowners. Customs war between Russia and Germany was especially tense in 1892-1894, and in 1894 a trade agreement was signed that was unfavorable for Russia.

Since that time, contradictions between Germany and Russia have intensified, which at the beginning of the 20th century. will lead to a clash between these powers in the First World War.

At the end of the 19th century. About 130 million people lived in the empire. Russia was a multinational state. Orthodoxy was the state religion in the empire. Orthodoxy was the most important basis of education and culture in Russia.

Culture

A global event was the discovery in 1869 of the periodic law of chemical elements - DI. Mendeleev.

There was a telephone connection.

In 1892 construction of tram tracks began.

Literature – Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev.

Painting – The realistic direction is represented by the work of the Itinerants (Repin, Surikov, Shishkin, Polenov). In a romantic manner - Aivazovsky.

Music - Tchaikovsky, (Borodin, Mussorgsky. Rimsky-Korsakov - A Mighty Handful of Hands. Balakirev)

"Great Reforms" of Alexander II

The 60s and 70s of the 19th century were a time of radical transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of life, both society and the state.

The reason for the changes was the lost Crimean War. Russia's defeat in the war showed the complete failure of Russia's political and economic system. The central place in the transformations of Alexander II is occupied by the abolition of serfdom (peasant reform).

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom:

1. Serfdom was immoral and was condemned by all layers of Russian society.
2. The preservation of serfdom made it impossible to modernize the country and overcome technical and economic backwardness.
3. The labor of serfs was unproductive and therefore unprofitable.
4. Since dependent peasants were deprived of the opportunity to fully participate in market relations, serfdom caused the narrowness of the domestic market and hindered the development of capitalism.
5. The continuation of the serfdom policy created the threat of a repetition of Pugachevism.
6. The presence of serfdom, very similar to slavery, undermined Russia's international authority.

In January 1857, Alexander II established Secret Committee for Peasant Affairs. At the end of 1857, a decree was issued “On the organization and improvement of the life of landowner peasants” (“ Rescript to Nazimov") according to which in each province, from among local landowners, provincial editorial commissions were formed to develop a project for the abolition of serfdom. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

The projects drawn up in the provincial committees were submitted for generalization to the editorial commissions formed under the Main Committee in 1859.

A significant role in the commissions was played by liberal-minded figures - Ya.I. Rostovtsev (chairman of the commission) and, who replaced him in this post, N.A. Milyutin.

February 19, 1861 Mr. Alexander II signed “ Provisions on peasants emerging from serfdom" And " Manifesto"on the liberation of the peasants.

The main provisions of the peasant reform:

1. The peasants received personal freedom (without ransom).
2. Peasants received land allotments for ransom. The peasant had to pay about 20% of the ransom amount to the landowner at a time. He received the remaining amount on credit from the state for 49 years.
3. Before the land was redeemed, the peasant was considered " temporarily obliged"in relation to the landowner, i.e. continued to bear feudal duties: he paid quitrents (“ sharecropping") and worked corvee labor (" working off»).
4. The purchased land became the property of the peasant community. The right of private ownership of land was the privilege of only noble landowners.
5. The “regulations” determined the minimum amount of land that landowners must keep for themselves. In the chernozem zone it accounted for 2/3 of the land, in the non-chernozem zone - 1/2, in the steppe - 1/3.
6. If the pre-reform peasant land allotment exceeded the post-reform one, then the excess went to the landowner (the so-called “ segments»).
7. The relationship between peasants and landowners was regulated by " By charter" They determined the size of allotments and duties. The landowner signed the letter not with each individual peasant, but with the community.
8. Peasants received the right to engage in business, enter into any legal relations, and move to other classes.

In 1863, under the same conditions, the appanage (royal) peasants were freed.

In 1866, state peasants received freedom. They did not have to buy back their land, but were subject to heavy taxes.

The peasant reform was the result of a compromise between the interests of landowners, peasants and the government. Moreover, the interests of the landowners were taken into account as much as possible.

One of the consequences of the reform was the massive ruin of landowners' farms. The nobles simply could not manage the redemption payments correctly and rebuild their production on a capitalist basis.

The burden of peasants with various payments and duties, the peasants' lack of land, agrarian overpopulation caused by the preservation of the community, and the presence of large landownership became sources of constant conflicts between peasants and landowners (the so-called agrarian question).

The reform prevented mass protests by peasants, although local ones still took place. The most significant of them date back to 1861 - peasant uprisings in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and Kandeevka, Penza province.

Zemstvo reform of 1864

The main reasons for the zemstvo reform were the need to create an effective system of local self-government and improvement of the Russian countryside. In the provinces and districts, local government bodies were created - provincial and district zemstvo assemblies. Vowel zemstvos (deputies) were elected by curiae. Most of the deputies were representatives of the landowning curia, i.e. The zemstvo reform increased the political influence of landowners (this was one of the goals of the reform), however, zemstvo bodies were considered all-class.

The zemstvos were in charge of issues of local economy, trade, industry, healthcare, public education, organization of charitable institutions, etc. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. Inter-provincial associations of zemstvos were prohibited.

Zemstvo reform is an attempt to create a new system of local self-government based on all-class representation. Subsequently, zemstvo institutions became centers of liberal opposition to the government.

IN 1870 The City Reform was carried out, in accordance with which City Dumas were created - an analogue of Zemstvo Assemblies in the city.

Judicial reform of 1864

It was based on the following principles: the muteness of the court, the equality of all subjects before the law, the independence of the court from the administration, the creation of a court jurors and the Institute of Sworn Attorneys (Lawyers).

During the reform process, Magistrates' courts for peasants, established in counties. They tried minor criminal offenses and civil cases. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies.

Decisions in criminal cases in district courts were made by jurors who returned a verdict to the accused. They were elected on special lists from people of different classes.

The functions of the supreme court were given to the Senate.

The trial became public and adversarial. This meant that the prosecutor (state prosecutor) was confronted by a lawyer independent from the administration.

In accordance with the judicial reform, the institution of notaries was created.

Judicial reform was the most democratic, radical and consistent among the reforms of the 60s and 70s.

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

The need for military reform was determined by the general military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, which created a threat to Russia's security and undermined its international authority. In addition, the army, based on conscription, did not correspond to the new social structure of Russian society. The initiator and leader of the reform was Minister of War D.A. Milyutin.

During the reform, military settlements were abolished, military districts were created (headed by commanders-in-chief), the War Ministry and the main headquarters were reorganized, and cadet and military schools were established. The military industry began to develop rapidly.

The central element of the military reform was the introduction of 1874 g. universal military service, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20. The service life was 6 years in the ground forces and 7 years in the navy. For those who had education and depending on its level, the service life was reduced from 4 years to 6 months.

Transformations in the army became an important factor in the democratization of society, the modernization of the army, and contributed to an increase in its combat effectiveness - all this was fully manifested in the war with Turkey of 1877 - 1878.

Significant changes have been made to the education system. The University Charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of universities. In accordance with the Charter of the Secondary School (1864), gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. The former prepared mainly for entry into university, the latter - into higher technical educational institutions.

In 1865, censorship reform was carried out. Pre-censorship was abolished for most books and literary magazines.

Reforms of the 1860-70s significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, the political reorganization of the country was not completed. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. There were no mechanisms for public influence on government policy.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. created favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy and the formation of capitalist relations.

Railway construction was the most important area of ​​economic development in post-reform Russia, because this new type of transport made it possible to significantly facilitate the export of grain and strengthen the country's defense capability. IN 1851 the railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow was opened.

In the 60s “railroad fever” began - a real boom in railway construction. Private capital, including foreign capital, was widely attracted to this industry. Moscow became the center of the railway network. In 1869, a road was put into operation connecting Moscow with the southern grain-producing provinces of southern Russia.

A new stage of intensive railway construction began in the 90s. Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte (the author of the monetary reform (the introduction of the gold equivalent of the ruble), later the Chairman of the Government) attached special importance to it. Now it was carried out mainly at public expense. In 1891, construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began. In 1896, construction began in Manchuria of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), the eastern branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

The abolition of serfdom caused a short hitch in the industrial development of the country, because... Possession peasants left the manufactories. Soon, however, industrial development picked up. The most significant successes were observed in textile production, which at that time was the leading branch of Russian industry. Significant growth was observed in the food industry, especially in the sugar industry.

It was very difficult for the metallurgical industry to adapt to the new conditions, where it was necessary not only to switch to civilian labor, but also to carry out technical re-equipment. Many Ural factories are falling into disrepair. However, at the same time (from the mid-70s), a new center of industrial production began to form in the Donetsk basin.

The Russian economy gradually entered the global economy and began to experience cyclical fluctuations in its development. IN 1873 Russia was first affected by the global industrial crisis.

In the first post-reform 20th anniversary, the main industrial regions of Russia were finally formed - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ural and Southern (Donbass). The textile industry predominated in the Moscow region. In St. Petersburg - metalworking and mechanical engineering. The Ural and Southern regions were the base of the metallurgical industry.

Back to top 1890 's in Russia is ending, which began back in 1830-40 gg., industrial revolution, i.e. the transition from manufactory to factory, from manual labor to machine labor. The industrial revolution had social consequences - there was a transition from the class structure of society to the class one. The main classes of society became the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

The agricultural development of Russia in the post-reform period was not so successful. It was especially difficult in the black earth regions, where peasants had difficulty switching to new methods of farming.

Landowner farms remained the main supplier of export grain. This indicates that the development of agriculture in Russia proceeded mainly along Prussian ways.

Signs of the Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Large plot sizes - latifundium.
• The owners of the latifundia are privileged landowners-latifundists.
• The plots are cultivated by numerous low-paid hired workers (farms) or slaves (as in the USA or pre-reform Russia).

Only in the steppe Trans-Volga region and the North Caucasus, where landownership was weak or did not exist at all, did agriculture develop according to American(farmer) way. These areas became the breadbasket of Russia and the main supplier of grain for export.

Signs of the American path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Small allotment sizes.
• The plot belongs to the farmer. In Russia they are called kulaks.
• The farmer himself and a few farm laborers cultivate the plot.

After the reform of 1861, the Russian village accelerated social differentiation- the process of separating the rural bourgeoisie from the general mass of the peasantry ( kulaks), owners of strong peasant farms serving their own needs ( middle peasants) and the rural poor ( farm laborers).

The development of capitalism in the countryside was hampered by the preservation of the community (“rural society”). The community acted as the owner of the land. She was involved in the distribution of land plots (in order to equalize the chances of a good harvest, peasants received land in stripes, that is, at different ends of the communal lands). The main bodies of community government were the village assembly and the village headman elected by it. One of the fundamental principles for the community was the principle of mutual responsibility.

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

The reforms of Alexander II caused opposition among conservatives. The brightest representative of this trend was M.N. Katkov is the editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti, who left after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. liberal camp. He believed that the reforms led to a separation of the intelligentsia from the people and violated the previously existing unity of the people with the tsar.

In the second half of the 19th century. In Russia, the ideas of liberalism are further developed, which are approved in a number of zemstvos. Liberal zemstvo leaders put forward the slogan of “positive work on the ground,” and attempts were also made to create an all-Russian zemstvo center. Russian liberals saw the main goal in establishing constitutional government. The most famous figures of the liberal zemstvo movement were I.I. Petrunkevich, D.N. Shipov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin.

At the same time, a significant part of educated society was captured by revolutionary sentiments. This direction of the social movement was quickly losing its noble character. The children of peasants, townspeople, clergy, and impoverished nobility quickly turned into intellectuals - commoners standing outside the classes. Parting with their past, they quickly ceased to respect the foundations and traditions ( nihilism). The mood of general pessimism and hatred of the state was strengthened by the introduction in 1861 of high tuition fees at universities. It was the various intelligentsia that became the main base of the revolutionary movement in post-reform Russia.

The reform of 1861 in no way satisfied the radical public. Chernyshevsky becomes her idol and inspirer. Obviously, he was the main organizer of the “proclamation campaign” of 1861. The proclamations distributed in Moscow and St. Petersburg contained demands for more decisive and consistent changes, supported by the threat of a popular uprising. In response, the authorities in 1861-1862. made a number of arrests, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to hard labor. Throughout the 1860s. The radical intelligentsia tried several times to create a strong organization. However, neither the group “Land and Freedom” (1861-1863, Chernyshevsky’s organization) nor the circle of N.A. could become such. Ishutin (whose member D.V. Karakozov shot Alexander II in 1866), nor “People’s Retribution” (1869) under the leadership of S.T. Nechaev (members of the organization killed student Ivanov on suspicion of betrayal). S.T. Nechaev is the author of the book “ Catechism of a Revolutionary».

Revolutionary populism

At the turn of the 1860-1870s. The ideology of revolutionary populism is emerging. It found its complete expression in the works of M.A. Bakunina, P.L. Lavrova, P.N. Tkachev. Firmly convinced that humanity in its development must inevitably come to socialism, these ideologists placed special hopes on the peasant community in Russia, considering it as the embryo of socialism (the theory of “community socialism” by A.I. Herzen). The populists were characterized by a negative attitude towards capitalism, which could destroy the peasant community. Converging on the basic theoretical principles, the leading ideologists of populism proposed various means for their implementation.

M.A. Bakunin ( 6untar direction of populism) saw such a means in an immediate peasant revolt, to which the peasants should be inspired by their example by the revolutionary intelligentsia. At the same time, Bakunin and his supporters denied the need for a state, relying on self-government of communities. M.A. Bakunin and his comrade-in-arms P. Kropotkin became the founders of Russian anarchism.

P.L. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) supported the idea of ​​a peasant revolution and considered revolutionary intellectuals as a force capable of inspiring the masses to participate in it through prolonged propaganda.

P.N. Tkachev ( conspiratorial direction) proceeded from the fact that the gap between the people and the intelligentsia is too significant and, in essence, insurmountable. It is impossible to rouse the peasants into a conscious revolutionary movement. The community must be liberated by the intelligentsia, seizing power through an armed coup and carrying out the necessary transformations from above.

In the late 1860s - early 1870s. In Russia, a number of populist circles arose among students. IN 1874 their members begin mass going to the people, for the purpose of carrying out revolutionary propaganda. However, it was not possible to rouse the peasants to revolution - all their calls were met with distrust and hostility among the peasants. The reason for this lay in the persisting belief in the “good king” among the peasants.

After an unsuccessful campaign among the people, the populists decide to change their tactics and move to “ sedentary"(constant, systematic) propaganda. IN 1876 g. arises " Land and Will"(second) - an organization that played the role of a coordination center for populist propaganda. Its unsuccessful activities lead the populists to the idea of ​​the need to abandon propaganda methods of struggle. IN 1879 There is a split of “Land and Freedom” into “Black Redistribution” and “People’s Will”.

« Black redistribution", whose leaders were G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod and V.I. Zasulich remained in propaganda positions. Soon its members left Russia and in 1883 created the first Russian Marxist organization in Geneva “ Liberation of labor».

« People's will" united the populists - supporters of the tactics of individual terror. This method of struggle existed earlier as a disorganizing method of work for “Land and Freedom”. The most famous terrorist of that time was V. Zasulich (later a member of the “Black Redistribution”), who in 1878 made an attempt on the life of St. Petersburg mayor D.F. Trepov. Later, the jury acquitted Zasulich, thereby justifying political terror in general. Zasulich herself later moved away from terror.

The leaders of “Narodnaya Volya” were A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya and V.N. Figner.

The activities of Narodnaya Volya led to government response measures. Not wanting to completely curtail the reform policy, Alexander II began to pursue a unique policy (“ Dictatorship of the heart"). On February 12, 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission was formed. It was headed by M. T. Loris-Melikov, who, on the one hand, continued the merciless fight against the revolutionary underground; on the other hand, he carried out a number of measures that softened censorship and arbitrariness of the local administration. In addition, Loris-Melikov presented the tsar with a project for democratic reforms, providing, in particular, for the convening of a central all-Russian zemstvo body (“ Loris-Melikov Constitution"). He was enthusiastically greeted by liberals and approved by Alexander II.

March 1, 1881 Alexander II was killed by Narodnaya Volya. His son Alexander III came to power. Loris-Melikov's project was rejected. Reaction reigned in the country, and populist organizations were destroyed. People's Volunteers Perovskaya, Mikhailov, Kibalchich, Zhelyabov and Rysakov were hanged.

In the post-reform period, in conditions of intensive industrial development, the labor movement became a noticeable phenomenon in social life. In 1875, the “South Russian Union of Workers” arose in Odessa (leader E.O. Zaslavsky), in 1878 in St. Petersburg - the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” (V.P. Obnorsky, S.N. Khalturin). Their participants advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, political freedoms, and social reconstruction. Labor organizations, while essentially Marxist, were heavily influenced by the Narodniks during this period.

In the 80s The labor movement becomes more organized and mass strikes begin. The most significant of these occurred in 1885 at the Morozov textile factory in Ivanovo-Voznesensk (“Morozov strike”). In the 90s There is a new rise in the strike movement. The workers' protests prompted the government to adopt a number of laws.

Domestic policy of autocracy at the end of the 19th century.

The reign of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) went down in history as a time of “counter-reforms”. The ideologists of the new political course were Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev (educator of the new emperor), Minister of Internal Affairs D.A. Tolstoy, famous publicist and public figure M.N. Katkov, who considered any borrowing from the West harmful and insisted on adjusting the reforms already carried out.

The practical implementation of the new course boiled down to the following:

1. Introduction of the Institute of Zemstvo Chiefs ( 1889 ). They were appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs from among the local noble landowners and exercised administrative and police control and judicial functions over the peasants. The power of the zemstvo chiefs strengthened the positions of the landowners and the government.
2. Zemstvo counter-reform ( 1890 ). During elections to zemstvos, the number of representatives from landowners increased due to a decrease in the property qualification. For urban residents, the qualifications, on the contrary, increased. All these measures were designed to strengthen the position of the nobility in local governments.
3. The property and educational qualifications for jurors were increased, which increased the representation of the nobility (1887).
4. University Charter 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of universities. Representatives of the “lower classes” found it difficult to obtain an education. " Circular about cook's children» ( 1887 ) recommended closing the doors of the gymnasium to children not from noble families.
5. In accordance with " Regulations on measures to protect state security and public peace» ( 1881 ) a state of emergency could be declared in any part of the empire. Local authorities received the right to arrest “suspicious persons”, exile them without trial for up to 5 years to any locality and bring them before a military court, close educational institutions and press organs, and suspend the activities of zemstvos.
6. The attitude towards religious dissent became tougher, and the rights of persons of non-Orthodox religion, especially Jews, were limited. The government pursued a policy of forced Russification of the national outskirts.

Considering the domestic policy of Alexander III, it is important to emphasize that the government implemented a number of measures aimed at improving the situation of peasants and workers.

IN 1881 g. all former landowner peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption, i.e. temporary relationships were abolished. The Peasant Bank was created (1882), which was supposed to assist peasants and peasant societies in the purchase of privately owned lands. In 1883 - 1885 The poll tax from peasants was reduced and then abolished.

In the 80s, the first attempts were made to regulate relations between workers and industrialists, to develop the basis of labor legislation: child labor was prohibited, fines were reduced, and a factory inspectorate was established to oversee compliance with working conditions.

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

After the end of the Crimean War, the main task of Russian foreign policy was the revision of the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856). Taking advantage of the contradictions between European states (primarily Prussia and France), Russian diplomacy led by A.M. Gorchakov was able to successfully solve this problem by announcing in 1870 d. on refusal to comply with the terms of the Paris Treaty. Already in the early 1870s. Russia is creating a navy in the Black Sea, restoring destroyed fortresses and beginning to resolve the Eastern Question.

1877-1878 gg. - the last Russian-Turkish war.

Causes of the war:

1. Russia's desire to resolve the Eastern Question.
2. The need to provide assistance to the fraternal Balkan peoples in their liberation struggle against the Ottoman yoke.
3. Russia faces the task of returning Southern Bessarabia, lost as a result of the Crimean War.
4. Russia is seeking to regain the international authority it lost after its defeat in the Crimean War.

April 12, 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The fighting took place simultaneously in the Balkans (under the leadership of I.V. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev) and in Transcaucasia (M.T. Loris-Melikov). The main events of the war were the defense of the Shipka Pass and the siege of the Turkish fortress of Plevna (it was captured only in November 1877; E.I. Totleben took part in the siege). In Transcaucasia, the fortresses of Batum and Erzurum were taken. IN February 1878 in the town San Stefano An agreement was signed near Constantinople, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received complete independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. Southern Bessarabia was returned to Russia.

However, the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers and, above all, Germany. They protested against the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano. In summer 1878 A congress was held in Berlin, at which Russia found itself in complete isolation. As a result, the Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania retained their independence, but Bulgaria was divided into two parts: the North received full autonomy, and the South remained a Turkish province. Turkey's colonies were divided among European states.

At the end of the nineteenth century. The German Empire is strengthening and is beginning to be perceived by the Russian government as the most dangerous enemy. Also in 1873 Russia agrees to the creation of " Union of Three Emperors"with the participation of Austria-Hungary and Germany, thus hoping to prevent the aggravation of relations with them. However, the disagreements between its members turned out to be too great and in 1878 the “Union” collapsed.

In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy concluded the so-called Triple Alliance, directed against France, but also threatening Russia.

The Russian government was forced to begin searching for an ally, now for a joint fight against the Triple Alliance. In 1891-92. a Franco-Russian alliance is created. This was the beginning Entente(from French - agreement), opposing the Triple Alliance.

An important task facing the Russian foreign policy department was the demarcation (clear definition) of the border with China. IN 1858 The Aigun Treaty was signed, according to which the border was drawn along the Amur River. The Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur remained in the joint possession of both states. IN 1860 g. - Beijing Treaty. Taking advantage of China's weakness, Russia annexes the Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur.

Another direction of foreign policy was the annexation of Central Asia.

In 1864, the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva, having suffered a series of military defeats, recognized vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate, which declared gazavat to Russia, was destroyed as a state: in 1876 its lands were included in the Turkestan region. The fight against the Turkmen tribes ended only in 1881, when M.D. Ashgabat and Geok-Tepe were taken by Skobelev.

Joining Russia was a boon for the local population: feudal civil strife ceased; blood feud began to become a thing of the past; slavery was abolished. The local population preserved its language, religion, culture, and national customs.

IN 1867 Alaska was sold to the United States for $7.2 million.

Culture of the second half of the 19th century.

The basis of secondary education continued to be gymnasiums, real and commercial schools. However, only gymnasiums were given the right to enter the university. In 1878, Higher Women's (Bestuzhev) Courses were opened, marking the beginning of higher women's education.

Russian science and technology in the post-reform period was represented by a whole galaxy of outstanding scientists. In the field of mathematics, P.L. continued his work. Chebyshev, A.M. Lyapunov, S.V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first female professor of mathematics). In chemical science A.M. Butlerov proposed a theory of the chemical structure of substances, D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of chemical elements.

Major scientific discoveries were made in physics. A.G. Stoletov investigated and described photoelectric phenomena. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp and was the first to transform alternating current. A.N. Lodygin designed an incandescent lamp. The main direction of scientific activity of A.S. Popov was the study of electromagnetic phenomena, its result was the invention of radio. The works of N.I. were of great importance for the development of aircraft manufacturing and practical aeronautics. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydro- and aeromechanics. The first experiments in the design of aircraft (aircraft) were carried out by A.F. Mozhaisky.

Biological sciences during this period developed under the influence of evolutionary teaching. Works by I.I. Mechnikov's studies in evolutionary embryology, pathology and immunology were recognized by scientists all over the world. At the origins of the Russian physiological school was I.M. Sechenov. One of the areas of his scientific activity was the study of the human psyche. I.P. Pavlov carried out extensive experimental research in the field of higher nervous activity and formulated the basic principles of the theory of conditioned reflexes. The development of agronomic science is associated with the names of V.V. Dokuchaev (founder of modern soil science) and K.A. Timiryazev (researcher of plant physiology).

New generalizing works on Russian history appear: the 29-volume “ History of Russia since ancient times" CM. Solovyov and " Russian history course» his student V.O. Klyuchevsky. Such outstanding representatives of Russian historical science as S.F. begin their scientific, pedagogical and social activities. Platonov and M.N. Pokrovsky. A notable event in scientific life was the work of M.M. Kovalevsky on general history.

Russian geographers and travelers continue to explore the little-studied territories of our planet. Admiral F.P. Litke carried out a survey of Kamchatka, Chukotka and some islands in the North Pacific Ocean. N.M. Przhevalsky, P.K. Kozlov, P.P. Semenov-Tianshansky studied the regions of Central and Central Asia during his travels. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay - the coast of New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.

The main process taking place in Russian literature and art of this period was democratization. Artistic culture takes on a simpler, more accessible character.

Second half of the 19th century. - the most important stage in the development of Russian literature. Creativity L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhova, I.S. Turgeneva, E. Saltykova-Shchedrina, A.A. Fet and many others had a huge influence on Russian and world literature.

In painting, as in literature, the realistic direction becomes dominant. IN 1870 g. arises " Association of Traveling Exhibitions", which united the majority of realist artists - I.N. Kramskoy (portrait of L.N. Tolstoy), A.K. Savrasov (“ The Rooks Have Arrived"), I.E. Repin ( “Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Wait”, “Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan”), IN AND. Surikov ( “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Conquest of Siberia by Ermak”), who opposed “academicism” in the fine arts.

In his aesthetic views, the outstanding Russian sculptor M.M. was close to the “Wanderers”. Antokolsky. He is the author of sculptural portraits "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler", "Ivan the Terrible".

According to the project M.O. Mikeshin in Novgorod, a monument was erected “ Millennium of Russia" Mikeshin was also the author of monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv. Vivid examples of monumental sculpture were the monuments erected according to the designs of A.M. Opekushin (Pushkin - in Moscow and Lermontov - in Pyatigorsk).

Musical art was distinguished in these years by the use of folk motifs. The motifs of folk music were most clearly presented in the operas of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (“ Mermaid"), M.P. Mussorgsky (" Boris Godunov"), ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov (“ The Tsar's Bride"), A.P. Borodin (“ Prince Igor"), who formed a circle of musicians known as " Mighty bunch" The most popular in these years was the work of P.I. Tchaikovsky, who created outstanding operas ( "Eugene Onegin", "Queen of Spades"), ballet ( "Swan Lake", "Nutcracker") and symphonic (1st Piano Concerto) works.

Eclecticism (combining features of different styles in one work) dominated among architectural styles. The pseudo-Russian style became a variety of eclecticism.

Examples of this style are buildings in Moscow Historical Museum(architects A.A. Semenov and V.O. Sherwood), City Duma(architect D.N. Chichagov), current Gumma(architect A.N. Pomerantsev).

For the broadest sections of Russian society, theater was one of the most accessible forms of art. The basis of the repertoire of both capital and provincial theaters were plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhova, N.V. Gogol. Realistic traditions in acting, laid down by M.S. Shchepkin, successfully continued and developed by outstanding Russian actors M.P. and O.O. Sadovskiye, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermolova, P.A. Strepetova. The Maly Theater in Moscow was rightfully considered the center of theatrical life in Russia.

SOCIAL MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

"Sixties". The rise of the peasant movement in 1861-1862. was the people's response to the injustice of the February 19 reform. This galvanized radicals who hoped for a peasant uprising.

In the 60s, two centers of radical trends emerged. One is around the editorial office of "The Bell", published by A.G. Herzen in London. He propagated his theory of “communal socialism” and sharply criticized the predatory conditions for the liberation of peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. Its ideologist was N.G. Chernyshevsky, the idol of the common youth of that time. He also criticized the government for the essence of the reform, dreamed of socialism, but, unlike A.I. Herzen, saw the need for Russia to use the experience of the European development model.

Based on the ideas of N.G. Chernyshevsky, several secret organizations were formed: the “Velikorus” circle (1861-1863), “Land and Freedom” (1861-1864). They included N.A. and A.A. Serno-Solovyevichi, G.E. Blagosvetlov, N.I. Utin and others. “Left” radicals set the task of preparing a people’s revolution. To achieve this, the landowners launched active publishing activities in their illegal printing house. In the magazine "Land and Freedom", in the proclamations "Bow to the lordly peasants from their well-wishers", "To the young generation", "Young Russia", "To the soldiers", "What the army needs to do", "Velikorus" they explained to the people the tasks of the upcoming revolution, substantiated the need for the elimination of autocracy and the democratic transformation of Russia, a fair solution to the agrarian question. The landowners considered N.P.’s article their program document. Ogarev “What do the people need?”, published in June 1861 in Kolokol. The article warned the people against premature, unprepared actions and called for the unification of all revolutionary forces.

"Land and Freedom". It was the first major revolutionary democratic organization. It included several hundred members from different social strata: officials, officers, writers, students. The organization was headed by the Russian Central People's Committee. Branches of the society were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov and other cities. At the end of 1862, the Russian military revolutionary organization created in the Kingdom of Poland joined “Land and Freedom”.

The first secret organizations did not last long. The decline of the peasant movement, the defeat of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland (1863), the strengthening of the police regime - all this led to their self-dissolution or defeat. Some members of the organizations (including N.G. Chernyshevsky) were arrested, others emigrated. The government managed to repel the onslaught of radicals in the first half of the 60s. There has been a sharp turn in public opinion against the radicals and their revolutionary aspirations. Many public figures who previously stood on democratic or liberal positions moved to the conservative camp (M.N. Katkov and others).

In the second half of the 60s, secret circles arose again. Their members preserved the ideological legacy of N.G. Chernyshevsky, but, having lost faith in the possibility of a popular revolution in Russia, they switched to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist tactics. They tried to realize their high moral ideals by immoral means. In 1866, a member of the circle N.A. Ishutina D.V. Karakozov attempted to assassinate Tsar Alexander II.

In 1869, teacher S.G. Nechaev and journalist P.N. Tkachev created an organization in St. Petersburg that called on student youth to prepare an uprising and use any means in the fight against the government. After the defeat of the circle, S.G. Nechaev went abroad for a while, but in the fall of 1869 he returned and founded the “People’s Retribution” organization in Moscow. He was distinguished by extreme political adventurism and demanded blind obedience to his orders from his participants. For refusing to submit to the dictatorship, student I.I. Ivanov was falsely accused of treason and killed. The police destroyed the organization. S.G. Nechaev fled to Switzerland, he was extradited as a criminal. The government used the trial against him to discredit the revolutionaries. “Nechaevism” for some time became a serious lesson for the next generations of revolutionaries, warning them against unlimited centralism.

At the turn of the 60-70s, largely based on the ideas of A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky, populist ideology took shape. It became very popular among democratically minded intellectuals of the last third of the 19th century. There were two trends among the populists: revolutionary and liberal.

Revolutionary populists. The main ideas of the revolutionary populists: capitalism in Russia is imposed “from above” and has no social roots on Russian soil; the future of the country lies in communal socialism; peasants are ready to accept socialist ideas; transformations must be carried out in a revolutionary way. M.A. Bakunin, PL. Lavrov and P.N. Tkachev developed the theoretical foundations of three trends of revolutionary populism - rebellious (anarchist), propaganda and conspiratorial. M.A. Bakunin believed that the Russian peasant was by nature a rebel and ready for revolution. Therefore, the task of the intelligentsia is to go to the people and incite an all-Russian revolt. Viewing the state as an instrument of injustice and oppression, he called for its destruction and the creation of a federation of self-governing free communities.

PL. Lavrov did not consider the people ready for revolution. Therefore, he paid most attention to propaganda with the aim of preparing the peasantry. The peasants had to be “awakened” by “critically thinking individuals” - the leading part of the intelligentsia.

P.N. Tkachev, as well as PL. Lavrov did not consider the peasant ready for revolution. At the same time, he called the Russian people “communists by instinct,” who do not need to be taught socialism. In his opinion, a narrow group of conspirators (professional revolutionaries), having seized state power, would quickly involve the people in a socialist reconstruction.

In 1874, based on the ideas of M.A. Bakunin, more than 1,000 young revolutionaries organized a mass “walk among the people,” hoping to rouse the peasants to revolt. The results were insignificant. The populists were faced with tsarist illusions and the possessive psychology of the peasants. The movement was crushed, the agitators were arrested.

"Land and Freedom" (1876-1879). In 1876, the surviving participants in the “walking among the people” formed a new secret organization, which in 1878 took the name “Land and Freedom.” The program provided for the implementation of a socialist revolution by overthrowing the autocracy, transferring all land to the peasants and introducing “secular self-government” in the countryside and cities. The organization was headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner et al.

A second “going to the people” was undertaken - for long-term agitation of the peasants. The landowners also engaged in agitation among workers and soldiers and helped organize several strikes. In 1876, with the participation of "Land and Freedom", the first political demonstration in Russia was held in St. Petersburg on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral. G.V. spoke to the audience. Plekhanov, who called to fight for land and freedom for peasants and workers. The police dispersed the demonstration, many of its participants were injured. Those arrested were sentenced to hard labor or exile. G.V. Plekhanov managed to escape from the police.

In 1878, some populists again returned to the idea of ​​the need for a terrorist struggle. In 1878, V.I. (Zasulich made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov and wounded him. However, the mood of society was such that the jury acquitted her, and F.F. Trepov was forced to resign. Among the Land Volunteers Discussions began about methods of struggle. They were prompted to this by both government repression and the thirst for activism. Disputes over tactical and programmatic issues led to a split.

"Black redistribution". In 1879, part of the landowners (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deych, P.B. Axelrod) formed the organization “Black Redistribution” (1879-1881). They remained faithful to the basic program principles of “Land and Freedom” and agitation and propaganda methods of activity.

"People's Will". In the same year, another part of the Zemlya Volya members created the organization "People's Will" (1879-1881). It was headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, SL. Perovskaya, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others. They were members of the Executive Committee - the center and main headquarters of the organization.

The Narodnaya Volya program reflected their disappointment in the revolutionary potential of the peasant masses. They believed that the people were suppressed and reduced to a slave state by the tsarist government. Therefore, they considered their main task to be the fight against this government. The program demands of the Narodnaya Volya included: preparation of a political coup and the overthrow of the autocracy; convening the Constituent Assembly and establishing a democratic system in the country; destruction of private property, transfer of land to peasants, factories to workers. (Many of the program positions of the Narodnaya Volya members were adopted at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries by their followers - the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries.)

The Narodnaya Volya carried out a number of terrorist actions against representatives of the tsarist administration, but considered their main goal to be the murder of the tsar. They assumed that this would cause a political crisis in the country and a nationwide uprising. However, in response to the terror, the government intensified repression. Most of the Narodnaya Volya members were arrested. S.L., who remains at large Perovskaya organized the assassination attempt on the Tsar. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded and died a few hours later.

This act did not live up to the expectations of the populists. It once again confirmed the ineffectiveness of terrorist methods of struggle and led to increased reaction and police brutality in the country. In general, the activities of the People's Will significantly slowed down the evolutionary development of Russia.

Liberal populists. This trend, while sharing the basic theoretical views of the revolutionary populists, differed from them in its rejection of violent methods of struggle. Liberal populists did not play a significant role in the social movement of the 70s. In the 80-90s their influence increased. This was due to the loss of authority of the revolutionary populists in radical circles due to disappointment in the terrorist methods of struggle. Liberal populists expressed the interests of the peasants and demanded the destruction of the remnants of serfdom and the abolition of landownership. They called for reforms to gradually improve the lives of the people. They chose cultural and educational work among the population as the main direction of their activity. For this purpose, they used printed organs (the magazine "Russian Wealth"), zemstvos and various public organizations. The ideologists of the liberal populists were N.K. Mikhailovsky, N.F. Danielson, V.P. Vorontsov.

The first Marxist and workers' organizations. In the 80-90s of the XIX century. radical changes took place in the radical movement. The revolutionary populists lost their role as the main opposition force. Powerful repression fell upon them, from which they could not recover. Many active participants in the movement of the 70s became disillusioned with the revolutionary potential of the peasantry. In this regard, the radical movement split into two opposing and even hostile camps. The first remained committed to the idea of ​​peasant socialism, the second saw in the proletariat the main force of social progress.

"Liberation of Labor" group. Former active participants in the “Black Redistribution” G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deitch and V.N. Ignatov turned to Marxism. In this Western European theory they were attracted by the idea of ​​achieving socialism through proletarian revolution.

In 1883, the Liberation of Labor group was formed in Geneva. Its program: a complete break with populism and populist ideology; propaganda of socialism; fight against autocracy; support for the working class; creation of a workers' party. They considered the most important condition for social progress in Russia to be a bourgeois-democratic revolution, the driving force of which would be the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat. They viewed the peasantry as a reactionary force in society. This revealed the narrowness and one-sidedness of their views.

Promoting Marxism in the Russian revolutionary environment, they launched a sharp critique of populist theory. The Liberation of Labor group operated abroad and was not connected with the labor movement emerging in Russia.

In Russia itself in 1883-1892. Several Marxist circles were formed (D.I. Blagoeva, N.E. Fedoseeva, M.I. Brusneva, etc.). They saw their task in the study of Marxism and its propaganda among workers, students and minor employees. However, they too were cut off from the labor movement.

The activities of the "Emancipation of Labor" group abroad and Marxist circles in Russia prepared the ground for the emergence of the Russian Social Democratic Party.

Workers' organizations. The labor movement in the 70-80s developed spontaneously and unorganized. Unlike Western Europe, Russian workers had neither their own political organizations nor trade unions. The “South Russian Workers' Union” (1875) and the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” (1878-1880) failed to lead the struggle of the proletariat and give it a political character. The workers put forward only economic demands - higher wages, shorter working hours, and the abolition of fines. The most significant event was the strike at the Nikolskaya manufactory of manufacturer T.S. Morozov in Orekhovo-Zuevo in 1885 (“Morozov strike”). For the first time, workers demanded government intervention in their relations with factory owners. As a result, a law was issued in 1886 on the procedure for hiring and firing, regulating fines and paying wages. The institution of factory inspectors was introduced, responsible for monitoring the implementation of the law. The law increased criminal liability for participation in strikes.

"Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." In the 90s of the 9th century. There has been an industrial boom in Russia. This contributed to an increase in the size of the working class and the creation of more favorable conditions for the development of its struggle. Stubborn strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow, the Urals and other regions of the country acquired a massive character. Textile workers, miners, foundry workers and railway workers went on strike. The strikes were economic and poorly organized.

In 1895 in St. Petersburg, scattered Marxist circles united into a new organization - the "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Masses." Its creators were V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin), Yu.Yu. Tsederbaum (I. Martov) and others. Similar organizations were created in Moscow, Ekaterinoslav, Ivanovo-Voznesensk and Kyiv. They tried to become the head of the strike movement, published leaflets and sent propagandists to workers' circles to spread Marxism among the proletariat. Under the influence of the "Union of Struggle" strikes began in St. Petersburg among textile workers, metal workers, workers at a stationery factory, sugar and other factories. The strikers demanded to reduce the working day to 10.5 hours, increase prices, and pay wages on time. The persistent struggle of workers in the summer of 1896 and winter of 1897, on the one hand, forced the government to make concessions: a law was passed to reduce the working day to 11.5 hours. On the other hand, it brought down repression on Marxist and workers' organizations, some of whose members were exiled to Siberia.

In the second half of the 1990s, “legal Marxism” began to spread among the remaining social democrats. P.B. Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and others, recognizing some of the provisions of Marxism, defended the thesis of the historical inevitability and inviolability of capitalism, criticized the liberal populists, and proved the regularity and progressiveness of the development of capitalism in Russia. They advocated a reformist path to transform the country in a democratic direction.

Under the influence of “legal Marxists,” some of the Social Democrats in Russia switched to the position of “economism.” The “economists” saw the main task of the labor movement in improving working and living conditions. They put forward only economic demands and abandoned political struggle.

In general, among Russian Marxists at the end of the 19th century. there was no unity. Some (led by V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin) advocated the creation of a political party that would lead the workers to implement a socialist revolution and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat (the political power of the workers), while others, denying the revolutionary path of development, proposed limiting themselves to the struggle for improving conditions life and work of working people of Russia.

The social movement in the second half of the 19th century, unlike the previous time, became an important factor in the political life of the country. The variety of directions and trends, views on ideological, theoretical and tactical issues reflected the complexity of the social structure and the severity of social contradictions characteristic of the transitional time of post-reform Russia. In the social movement of the second half of the 19th century. A direction capable of carrying out the evolutionary modernization of the country has not yet emerged, but the foundations have been laid for the formation of political parties in the future.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.

Development of agriculture.

Development of Russian industry in the first half of the 19th century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology.

Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.

Exacerbation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. “The days of Alexander were a wonderful beginning.”

Peasant question. Decree "On Free Plowmen". Government measures in the field of education. State activities of M.M. Speransky and his plan for state reforms. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. Balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I. Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of war. Results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Alliance.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevism. Military settlements.

Foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the “Union of Salvation” and the “Union of Prosperity”. Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are “Russian Truth” by P.I. Pestel and “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. Uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The significance of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization and bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Intensifying repressive measures. Creation of the III department. Censorship regulations. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "On Obligated Peasants".

Polish uprising 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Eastern question. Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in Russian foreign policy in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. Progress of military operations. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.

Annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs from the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century.

N.V. Stankevich’s circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen’s circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical Letter" by P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" by A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

Peasant reform. Preparation of reform. "Regulation" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. Duties of peasants. Temporary condition.

Zemstvo, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The meaning of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.

Industrial development. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology. The main stages of the development of capitalism in industry.

The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the 19th century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the 19th century.

Revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the 19th century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "People's Will" and "Black Redistribution". Assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of Narodnaya Volya.

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. A work issue arises. Factory legislation.

Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the 19th century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.

St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the “inviolability” of autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

International position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of Three Emperors.

Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the eastern question. Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, course of military operations. Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Education, 1996.

In the minds of people - readers and critics - of the 19th century, literature was given an important role in public life. Reading was not entertainment, not a form of leisure, but a way of understanding reality. For the writer, creativity became an act of spiritual and civil service to society; he believed in the effective power of the artistic word, in the possibility with its help to elevate the human soul, educate the mind and influence the socio-political situation.

From this faith was born the pathos of the struggle for this or that idea of ​​​​transforming the country, this or that path of development of Russian life and literature. The 19th century was the heyday of Russian critical thought. The printed speeches of the best critics entered the golden fund of Russian culture and confirmed the high status of criticism as a special type of literature.

Slavophiles and Westerners

In the 1840s, two social movements arose - Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky) and Westerners (V.G. Belinsky , A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, N.A. Nekrasov). Westerners saw in the reforms of Peter I the beginning of the historical development of Russia, and in following European traditions - its right path. They were skeptical about pre-Petrine Rus', considering the lack of a rich ancient history to be an advantage of Russia: a guarantee of the rapid assimilation of the progressive ideas of Western Europe.

During these years, a radical movement emerged among Westerners, based on the teachings of the French utopian socialists - Saint-Simon and Fourier. At the apartment of M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky gathers a political circle, which includes young people passionate about socialist ideas. These meetings are also attended by writers, many of whom will later reconsider their attitude towards the Petrashevites - F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Maikov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin et al.

Utopian socialists saw the main social evil in inequality, in a distorted social order. The solution, in their opinion, was to re-educate the ruling class. The most radically minded part of this movement considered revolution as the only possible way of social transformation.

The Slavophile program for reforming Russia was based on the ideas of an independent path of development for a country with a history no less rich than the European one, independent of the West. “The Slavophiles considered the special, integral type of thinking, inherited from the Orthodox East and rooted in the deep layers of national life, as an indisputable advantage of Russian culture, requiring its development and improvement,” writes modern scientist Yu.V. Lebedev. The Slavophiles accepted the assimilation of the achievements of Western civilization only to the extent that this did not contradict the foundations of Russian culture. And if the West directs its concern for human life towards the improvement of external circumstances, then Orthodox Russia calls, first of all, for the moral improvement of man. European civilization, according to the Slavophiles, suffers from a spiritual disease of unbelief, individualism, deification of man and disappointment in spiritual values.

The divergence in views on the fate of Russia between Westerners and Slavophiles was also expressed in the different assessments that representatives of both philosophical movements gave to the work of N.V. Gogol. Westerners saw in this writer the founder of the social-critical trend in Russian literature, while Slavophiles emphasized a special element of the artistic worldview of the author of Dead Souls - epic completeness and high prophetic pathos. However, both of them recognized Gogol’s fruitful influence on the development of Russian literature as indisputable.

"Natural School"

In the 1840s, a galaxy of word artists grew up, creatively developing the achievements of their older contemporary. The group of writers who rallied around Belinsky was called the “natural school.” The main object of depiction in their work was the “unprivileged” classes (janitors, artisans, coachmen, beggars, peasants, etc.). The writers sought not only to give a voice to the “humiliated and insulted”, to reflect their way of life and morals, but also to show the whole of vast Russia from a social point of view. At this time, the genre of “physiological essay” became popular, in which various social strata of Russian society were described with scientific rigor, thoroughness and factual accuracy (the best essays were written by N.A. Nekrasov, V.I. Dal, I.I. Panaev, D.V. Grigorovich, I.S. Turgenev, G.I. Uspensky, F.M. Reshetnikov, etc.).

Democratic revolutionaries

By the beginning of the 1860s, the confrontation between Westerners and Slavophiles had almost exhausted itself: by this time the ideologist of Westernism V.G. Belinsky and Slavophiles A.S. had passed away. Khomyakov and P.V. Kireyevsky. However, there was still no unity in the views of the Russian intelligentsia on the main issues of Russian life. In the context of a changing historical situation (the rapid development of cities, industry, the improvement of the education system), new forces are coming into literature - commoners, people from different social strata (clergy, merchants, philistines, peasants, bureaucrats and impoverished nobility), who received education and broke away from the previous its environment. In criticism and literature, revolutionary democratic ideas laid down by Belinsky are being developed. Representatives of this movement put pressing socio-political issues at the center of their creativity.

The main platform for the revolutionary-democratic wing of Russian criticism was the magazines Sovremennik, Otechestvennye zapiski, and Russkoe Slovo. The philosophical foundations of a critical approach to works of art were laid in the master's thesis of N.G. Chernyshevsky “Aesthetic relations of art to reality.” Democratic revolutionaries viewed literature from the point of view of political and social significance; they treated literary text as a reproduction of life, and based on the analysis of the artistic image, they passed a harsh verdict on reality. This method of analysis is the young talented critic N.A. Dobrolyubov called it “real criticism.”

"Aesthetic criticism" and "organic criticism"

Didacticism in the perception of artistic creativity was not accepted by representatives of “aesthetic criticism” (V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, A.V. Druzhinin), who proclaimed the intrinsic value of art, its independence from social problems and utilitarian tasks.

“Organic criticism” sought to overcome the limitations of “pure art”, which solves exclusively aesthetic problems, and social determinism (the subordination of creativity to political ideas and public interests). According to its principles developed by A.A. Grigoriev, and then N.N. Strakhov, true art is born, not “made”; it is the fruit not only of the mind, but also of the artist’s soul, his “thought of the heart”; all aspects of human existence are reflected in it.

Soilists and nihilists

These ideas were close to the socio-philosophical movement, which was called “soilism.” Its representatives (A.A. Grigoriev, P.P. Strakhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.Ya. Danilevsky), developing the views of the Slavophiles, warned against the danger of being carried away by social ideas in isolation from reality, traditions, people, and history. Thinkers called for understanding Russian life, to comprehend the ideal embedded in the people's consciousness, in order to derive the principles of the organic development of the country. On the pages of the magazines “Vremya” and then “Epoch”, the “soilists” criticized the self-confident rationalism of revolutionary-minded opponents, and the viability of philosophy and art was determined by its connection with people’s life, Russian culture and history.

The soil scientists saw one of the main dangers in their contemporary reality in nihilism (from the Latin nihil - nothing). This phenomenon became widespread among young commoners in the 1860s and was expressed in the denial of established norms of behavior, art, religion, historical traditions, cultural values, recognized authorities and the dominant worldview. Moral categories were replaced by the concepts of “benefit” and “pleasure.”

A complex of spiritual, moral and social problems associated with nihilism is reflected in the novel by I.S. Turgenev’s “Fathers and Sons” (1861), which caused a heated discussion in the press. The main character of Turgenev's novel, Bazarov, who denies love, compassion, art and harmony, was enthusiastically greeted by D.I. Pisarev, a leading critic of the revolutionary-democratic magazine “Russian Word” and the main ideologist of nihilism. In the proclamation of the “godless freedom” of man, in the destructive passion of the new phenomenon, many thinkers saw a serious danger for Russia. In the literature of this time, a special genre of “anti-nihilistic novel” was developing (I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.F. Pisemsky, N.S. Leskov). The conservative magazine “Russian Messenger”, published by M.N., took an irreconcilable position towards nihilistic revolutionaries. Katkov.

Development of the novel genre

In general, the literary process of the second half of the 19th century was marked by the development of the novel genre in all the diversity of its types: epic novel (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy), political novel (“What is to be done?” by N.G. Chernyshevsky), social novel (“The Golovlevs” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), psychological novel (“Crime and Punishment” and other works by F.M. Dostoevsky). The novel became the central epic genre of the era, most corresponding to the most important task that time set for the artist: to explore the complex interactions of man and the surrounding life.

Poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century

After the Golden Age, having lost its dominant significance as the ruler of thoughts and feelings, poetry continued to develop powerfully and prepare the ground for new ups and downs. In the 1850s, poetry experienced a short but vibrant period of prosperity. The lyricist of “pure art” (A.A. Fet, Y.P. Polonsky, A.N. Maikov) gains recognition and fame.

Attention to folk life, history, and folklore, characteristic of literature in general, is also reflected in poetry. The main, key moments of Russian history received poetic interpretation in the works of A.N. Maykova, A.K. Tolstoy, L.A. Meya. Folk legends, epics, and songs determine the stylistic searches of these authors. The other wing of Russian poetry of the 50s and 60s (the work of the populists M.L. Mikhailov, D.D. Minaev, V.S. Kurochkin) was called “civil” and was associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The indisputable authority for poets of this movement was N.A. Nekrasov.

In the last third of the 19th century, the work of peasant poets I.Z. became a noticeable phenomenon. Surikova, L.N. Trefoleva, S.D. Drozhzhin, who continued the traditions of Koltsov and Nekrasov.

The poetry of the 1880s was characterized, on the one hand, by the development and enrichment of romantic traditions, and on the other, by the enormous influence of Russian prose, the novels of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky with their deep and subtle psychological analysis of human character.

Drama of the 2nd half of the 19th century

The second half of the 19th century became the era of the formation of an original national drama. Widespread use of folklore, attention to merchant and peasant life, the folk language, interest in Russian history, social and moral issues, expansion and complication of the traditional genre range, a complex combination of romanticism and realism - this is the general character of the works of Russian playwrights of the second half of the 19th century - A. N. Ostrovsky, A.K. Tolstoy, L.V. Sukhovo-Kobylina.

The variety of artistic forms and styles of dramaturgy of the 2nd half of the 19th century largely predetermined the emergence at the end of the century of such innovative phenomena as the dramaturgy of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov.