18.04.2019

Psychological processes and their types. Basic psychological processes and states

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Human psychological processes

1.1 Perception

1.2 Attention

1.3 Thinking

Chapter 2. Psychological states of a person

2.1 Feelings

2.2 Affects

2.3 Sentiments

2.4 Stress

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Mental processes: perception, attention, thinking, speech etc. - act as the most important components of any activity. In order to satisfy his needs, communicate, play, study and work, a person must perceive the world, pay attention to certain moments or components of activity, imagine what he needs to do, remember, think, and make judgments. Consequently, without the participation of mental processes, human activity is impossible; they act as its integral internal moments. But it turns out that mental processes do not just participate in activity, they develop in it and themselves represent special types of activity.

A person not only cognizes reality in the processes of perception, memory, imagination and thinking, but at the same time relates in one way or another to certain facts of life, experiences certain feelings in relation to them. The basic emotional states that a person experiences are divided into actual emotions, feelings and affects. Emotions and feelings anticipate the process aimed at satisfying a need, have an ideational character and are, as it were, at the beginning of it. Emotions and feelings express the meaning of a situation for a person from the point of view of a currently relevant need, the significance of the upcoming action or activity for its satisfaction. Emotions can be caused by both real and imagined situations.

The structure of emotional processes differs significantly from the structure of cognitive ones. The class of emotions includes moods, feelings, affects, stress. They are included in all mental processes and human states.

Emotions are a special class of subjective psychological states that reflect, in the form of direct experiences, feelings of a person’s pleasant or unpleasant attitude towards the world and people, the process and results of his practical activities.

Chapter 1. Human psychological processes

1.1 Perception

Perception in the process of practical activity acquires its most important human qualities. In activity, its main types are formed: perception of depth, direction and speed of movement, time and space. As a result of practical manipulation with three-dimensional, nearby and distant objects, a person learns to perceive and evaluate forms. Tracking movements of the hand and eye, accompanied by synergistic, coordinated contractions of certain muscle groups, contribute to the formation of the perception of movement and its direction. Changes in the speed of moving objects are automatically reproduced in the acceleration and deceleration of contractions of certain muscle groups, and this trains the senses to perceive speed.

There are several options for defining the concept of “perception”:

Perception - This is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena that arise from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.

Perception called the reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

Perception - This is a reflection in a person’s consciousness of objects and phenomena as a whole that directly affect his sense organs, and not of their individual properties, as happens with sensation.

Perception is not the sum of sensations received from this or that object, but a qualitatively new level of sensory cognition with its inherent abilities.

Perception - a form of holistic mental reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

Combining all the definitions into one, we can conclude that:

Perception- this is the result of the activity of the analyzer system. The primary analysis, which takes place in the receptors, is complemented by the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the brain sections of the analyzers. Unlike sensations, in the processes of perception an image of a complete object is formed by reflecting the entire set of its properties. However, the image of perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations, although it includes them in its composition. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.

Already in the act of perception, every object acquires a certain generalized meaning and appears in a certain relation to other objects. Generalization is the highest manifestation of the awareness of human perception. The act of perception reveals the relationship between the sensory and mental activities of the individual.

In perception, objects of the surrounding world are reflected in a combination of various properties and parts. The interaction of the system of analyzers can arise due to the influence of a complex of stimuli from various analyzers: visual, auditory, motor, tactile.

It is perception that is most closely related to the transformation of information coming directly from the external environment. At the same time, images are formed, with which attention, memory, thinking, and emotions subsequently operate. Depending on the analyzers, the following types of perception are distinguished: vision, touch, hearing, kinesthesia, smell, taste. Information about its properties (shape, size, etc.) obtained in active interaction with an object is transformed into a number of characteristics, from which, later, upon recognition, integral representations of objects - images - are again reconstructed. Thanks to the connections formed during training between different analyzers, the image reflects such properties of objects or phenomena for which there are no special analyzers, for example, the size of the object, weight, shape, regularity, which indicates the complex organization of this mental process.

The construction of an image of a perceived object is closely related to the method of examining it. During the learning process, with repeated perception of an object, the structure of actions with the object changes (due to immersion).

Initially, human activity is directed and corrected by the influence of only external objects. The image is unique, concrete and cannot be conveyed by logic. Having fulfilled its function in regulating behavior, a certain image loses its direct sensory basis and is included in a person’s life experience, acquiring the status of a representation. Whatever a person perceives, everything invariably appears before him in the form of holistic images. A person perceives first of all what suits his interests and needs. In this sense, they say that reflection is purposeful and is itself active work. From this point of view, perception appears as a system of objective perceptual actions that is formed during life, with the help of which a person builds an image of the surrounding reality and orients himself in it.

Due to the fact that the image simultaneously reflects such different properties of an object as its size, color, shape, texture, rhythm, we can say that this is a holistic and generalized representation of the object - the result of a synthesis of many individual sensations. Due to its integrity, the image is already capable of regulating appropriate behavior. To perceive an object as an image means to act in relation to it on an internal level and to obtain an idea of the consequences of these actions.

This synthesis can occur both within one modality and within several modalities. Due to its integrity, the image is already capable of regulating appropriate behavior. Only as a result of such unification are isolated sensations transformed into a holistic perception, moving from the reflection of individual signs to the reflection of entire objects or situations. Therefore, the main difference between perception and sensation is the objectivity of awareness of everything that affects us, i.e. display of an object in the real world in the totality of all its properties or a holistic display of an object.

In addition to sensations, the process of perception involves previous experience, processes of understanding what is perceived, i.e. the process of perception includes mental processes of an even higher level, such as memory and thinking. Therefore, perception is often called the human perceptual system.

In turn, a holistic reflection of an object requires the isolation of the main leading features from the entire complex of influencing features (color, shape, weight, taste, etc.) with simultaneous abstraction from the unimportant ones. Most likely, at this stage of perception, thinking can take part in the formation of a perceptual image. At the same time, the next stage of perception requires combining a group of basic essential features and comparing the perceived set of features with previous knowledge about the subject, i.e. memory is involved in the process of perception. Complete perception of objects arises as a result of complex analytical-synthetic work, in which some (essential) features are highlighted and others (insignificant) are inhibited. And the perceived signs are combined into one meaningful whole. Therefore, the speed of recognition or reflection of an object in the real world is largely determined by how active perception, as a process, is (i.e., how active the reflection of this object is).

A huge role in perception is played by our desire to perceive this or that object, the consciousness of the need or obligation to perceive it, volitional efforts aimed at achieving better perception, the persistence that we show in these cases. Thus, in the perception of an object in the real world, attention and direction (in this case, desire) are involved.

By talking about the role of the desire to perceive objects in the world around us, we prove that our attitude to what we perceive is of great importance for the process of perception. The subject may be interesting or indifferent to us, i.e. it can evoke different feelings in us. Naturally, an object that is interesting to us will be perceived by us more actively, and vice versa, we may not even notice an object that is indifferent to us.

1.2 Attention

Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness on some object, phenomenon or activity. The direction of consciousness is the choice of an object, and concentration involves distraction from everything that is not related to this object.

Attention determines the successful orientation of the subject in the surrounding world and ensures a more complete and clear reflection of it in the psyche. The object of attention appears in the center of our consciousness, everything else is perceived weakly and indistinctly, but the direction of our attention can change.

Attention has some characteristics that manifest themselves to different degrees in different people. So, the properties:

1. Focus (concentration) - highlighting an object with the consciousness and directing attention to it.

2. Stability - greater resistance to distractions, thanks to which a person can be focused on some object or action for a long time.

3. Volume of attention - the number of objects perceived simultaneously.

4. Distribution - the ability to simultaneously monitor several objects or perform various actions.

5. Switching - consciously moving attention to a new object.

If the teacher’s lecture is interesting in content, then students listen to it attentively without any effort. This is a manifestation of the so-called involuntary attention. It often appears in a person not only without any volitional effort, but also without the intention to see, hear, etc. anything. Therefore, this type of attention is also called unintentional.

What causes involuntary attention? There are several reasons:

1. Relative strength of the stimulus.

2. Unexpectedness of the stimulus.

3. Moving objects. The French psychologist T. Ribot especially highlighted this factor; he believed that it is thanks to the targeted activation of movements that concentration and increased attention on the subject occur.

4. Novelty of the stimulus.

5. Contrasting objects or phenomena.

6. The internal state of a person.

The so-called voluntary attention has a different character. It arises because a person has a goal, an intention to perceive or do something. This type of attention is also called intentional. Voluntary attention has a volitional character.

Psychologists still have a third type of attention, which arises after certain volitional efforts, but when a person “enters” the work, he begins to easily focus on it. Soviet psychologist N. F. Dobrynin called such attention post-voluntary (or secondary), since it replaces ordinary voluntary attention.

If the condition for the appearance of involuntary attention is, as has been said, the qualities of external stimuli and the characteristics of a person’s internal state (his needs, interests), then for the appearance and maintenance of voluntary attention a conscious attitude to activity is necessary. However, it often happens that this conscious attitude is present, the goal is clear and its achievement is recognized as absolutely necessary, but nevertheless the person cannot work with concentration. This happens to people with a poorly developed will, who are not used to making a certain effort to be attentive.

1.3 Thinking

Thinking- indirect and generalized reflection of significant, natural relationships of reality. This is a generalized orientation in specific situations of reality.

Thinking, being an ideal reflection of reality, has a material form of its manifestation. The mechanism of human thinking is hidden, silent, inner speech. It is characterized by hidden, unnoticeable articulation of words and micro-movements of the speech organs. The latter are associated with excitations in the speech motor zone of the cerebral cortex. A feature of internal speech is its abbreviation, conciseness, and condensation. But when mental difficulties arise, internal speech takes on an expanded form and often turns into whispered or loud speech. This allows you to better analyze and consolidate abstract speech material: wording, task conditions, etc.

In the diverse phenomena of thinking, the following are distinguished: mental activity, mental actions, mental operations, forms of thinking, types of thinking, individual typological features of thinking, thinking as a process of solving creative, non-standard problems.

Mental activity- a system of mental actions aimed at solving a problem. Individual mental actions are associated with solving intermediate problems, components of the overall problem.

Mental actions are a set of mental operations aimed at identifying data that is not directly hidden properties and relationships between real world objects. Every mental act is based on a system of operations.

TO mental operations include comparison, generalization, abstraction, classification and specification.

All mental operations are associated with analysis and synthesis. Analysis and synthesis are two inseparable aspects of the entire process of cognition (including the sensory stage).

The product of mental actions is certain cognitive results that are expressed in three forms of thinking.

Forms of thinking are: 1) judgment; 2) inference; 3) concept. Logic studies the patterns of relationships between these forms of thinking. By studying the forms of thinking, logic is abstracted from the specific content of thoughts contained in these forms; it establishes general laws and principles for achieving the truth of that knowledge that is derived from other reliable knowledge. Psychology studies the patterns of creative thinking, leading to new cognitive results and the discovery of new knowledge.

Exploring the world, a person generalizes the results of sensory experience and reflects the general properties of things. To understand the world around us, it is not enough just to notice the connection between phenomena; it is necessary to establish that this connection is common property of things. On this generalized basis, a person solves specific cognitive problems. Nemov R.S. Psychology. Textbook - M.: VLADOS, 1999.

Thinking provides answers to questions that cannot be resolved through direct, sensory reflection. So, while examining the scene of the incident, the investigator finds some traces of the past event. By establishing significant, inevitably repeating relationships between them, the investigator, through logical thinking, reconstructs the possible course of events. This reconstruction occurs indirectly, by understanding the connections between external manifestations and the essence of what actually happened. This indirect reflection is possible only on the basis of generalization, on the basis of knowledge. Thanks to thinking, a person correctly navigates the world around him, using previously obtained generalizations in a new, specific environment.

1.4 Speech

One of the main differences between man and the animal world, a difference that reflects the patterns of his physiological, mental and social development, is the presence of a special mental process called speech. Speech is the process of communication between people through language. In order to be able to speak and understand someone else’s speech, you need to know the language and be able to use it. Reader on general psychology: Psychology of thinking - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1981. P.90

In psychology, it is customary to separate the concepts of “language” and “speech”. Language is a system of conventional symbols with the help of which combinations of sounds that have a certain meaning and meaning for people are transmitted. Language is developed by society and is a form of reflection of their social existence in the public consciousness of people. Language, being formed in the process of communication between people, is at the same time a product of socio-historical development. Moreover, one of the phenomena of language is that each person finds a ready-made language spoken by those around him, and in the process of his development assimilates it. However, having become a native speaker, a person becomes a potential source of development and modernization of the language he speaks.

Language is a rather complex formation. Every language has, first of all, a certain system meaningful words, called the lexical composition of the language. In addition, a language has a certain system of various forms of words and phrases, which constitutes the grammar of the language, and also has a certain sound, or phonetic, composition, characteristic only of a specific language.

The main purpose of language is that, being a system of signs, it ensures that each word is assigned a certain meaning. Any meaning of a word is always a generalization. If we say the word “machine,” then this word unites a whole system of objects, for example, cars of all varieties and models, or any mechanical devices that perform certain operations. In the same time given word can denote a specific object, and we are clearly aware of what object we are talking about, which provides the possibility of communication between people. For example, if you ask: “What kind of car is this?”, then your interlocutor understands that you are asking about a specific car. At the same time, your interlocutor understands that you are interested in the brand and type of this car.

In contrast to language, speech is usually called the process of verbal communication itself, which can be carried out in the form of a message, instructions, questions, orders. From a psychological point of view, communication through language is no less complex a phenomenon than language itself. In order to convey any information using speech, it is necessary not only to select the appropriate words that have a certain meaning, but also to specify them. Every word, as we said, is a generalization, therefore in speech it must be narrowed to a certain level, or meaning. This is achieved by introducing the word into a specific context. So, in the example with a car, we concretized the concept of “machine” by pointing to the spatio-temporal characteristics of the object of interest to us and showing it with the help of the question “What kind of car is this?” that we are interested in the subject itself. If we asked: “Whose car is this?”, then it would be clear to the interlocutor that we are not interested in the object itself, but in who it belongs to. Vygotsky L. S. Collected Works: In 6 volumes. Vol. 1.: Questions of theory and history of psychology / Ch. ed. A.V. Zaporozhets. - M.: Pedagogy, 1982. P. 104

In addition to the content conveyed through verbal meanings, speech also expresses our emotional attitude to what we say. This phenomenon is called the emotional-expressive side of speech and is due to the tone of the words that we use to pronounce the phrase being expressed.

And finally, speech can also have a psychological side, since speech often contains semantic subtext that reflects the purpose (or motive of speech) for which this or that phrase was said. When we asked about the car, we thereby showed the interlocutor that we were interested in car brands and everything connected with them. However, not every phrase uses semantic subtext as a specific information load. In certain cases, the semantic subtext may have the nature of a latent (hidden) meaning. For example, we asked a question about a car, knowing about our interlocutor’s passion for cars, and thereby made an attempt to change the topic of conversation or to further win over the interlocutor by showing him that we are interested in the same problems as him.

Chapter 2. Psychological states of a person

2.1 H uvst va

A person not only cognizes reality in the processes of perception, memory, imagination and thinking, but at the same time relates in one way or another to certain facts of life, experiences certain feelings in relation to them. Such an internal personal relationship has its source in activity and communication, in which it arises, changes, strengthens or fades away. Patriotism is also called a feeling, which largely determines a person’s position. The feeling that gripped a person is also called disgust towards a liar who has deceived someone for petty reasons. The same concept also refers to the fleeting pleasure that arose due to the fact that after a long rain the sun shone.

Feelings are a person’s internal attitudes to what is happening in his life, what he knows or does, experienced in various forms.

Feelings are a special mental state experienced by a subject, where perception and understanding of something, knowledge about something appears in unity with a personal attitude towards what is perceived, understood, known or unknown. In all these cases, they talk about feeling as a special emotional state of a person.

A feeling is sometimes experienced only as a pleasant, unpleasant or mixed shade of any mental process. At the same time, it is not recognized in itself, but as a property of objects or actions, and we say: a pleasant person, an unpleasant taste, a scary bull, a funny expression, tender foliage, a cheerful walk, etc. Often this feeling tone turns out to be a consequence of previous strong experiences, echoes of past experience. Sometimes it serves as an indicator of whether an object satisfies or does not satisfy a person, or whether an activity is successful or unsuccessful. For example, the same geometric problem may be accompanied by different feelings depending on the success of its solution.

2. 2 Affects

Affects are particularly pronounced emotional states, accompanied by visible changes in the behavior of the person who experiences them. Affect does not precede behavior, but is, as it were, shifted to its end. This is a reaction that arises as a result of an action or deed that has already been committed and expresses its subjective emotional coloring. From the point of view of the extent to which, as a result of committing a given act, it was possible to achieve the set goal, to satisfy the need that stimulated it.

Affects contribute to the formation of so-called affective complexes in perception, which express the integrity of the perception of certain situations. The development of affect is subject to the following law: the stronger the “initial motivational stimulus of behavior” and the more effort had to be spent to implement it, the smaller the result obtained as a result of all this, the stronger “the emerging affect. Unlike emotions and feelings, affects occur violently, quickly, and are accompanied by pronounced organic changes and motor reactions. Affects, as a rule, interfere with the normal organization of behavior and its rationality. They are capable of leaving strong and lasting traces in long-term memory. Unlike affects, the work of emotions and feelings is associated primarily with short-term and operative memory. Emotional tension accumulated as a result of the occurrence of affectogenic situations can accumulate and sooner or later, if it is not released in time, lead to a strong and violent emotional release, which, while relieving tension, often entails a feeling of fatigue, depression, depression.

Affect completely captures the human psyche, as if fusing the main influencing stimulus with all adjacent ones and thereby forming a generalized affective complex that predetermines a single reaction to the situation as a whole, including accompanying associations and movements.

The distinctive features of affect are its situational nature, generality, high intensity and short duration. In affect, attention changes sharply, its switchability decreases, and only those objects that, in connection with the experience, have entered the complex are retained in the field of perception. All other stimuli that are not included in the complex are not sufficiently realized - and this is one of the reasons for the practical uncontrollability of this state. At the same time, there may be both an easier transition to uncontrollable actions and complete numbness. Since affect captures a person entirely, then if it finds outlet in some activity, even not directly related to the object of affect, it is sometimes weakened to such an extent that a loss of strength and indifference sets in. The regulatory, adaptive function of affects is the formation of a specific response and a corresponding trace in memory, which subsequently determines selectivity in relation to situations that previously caused affect.

Affects are emotional processes that quickly take hold of a person and proceed violently. They are characterized by significant changes in consciousness, impaired control over actions, loss of self-control, as well as changes in the entire vital activity of the body. Affects are short-lived, since they immediately cause an enormous expenditure of energy: they are like a flash of feeling, an explosion, a rushing squall. If an ordinary emotion is emotional excitement, then affect is a storm.

The development of affect is characterized by various stages that replace each other. Seized by an affective outbreak of rage, horror, confusion, wild delight, despair, a person at different moments reflects the world differently, expresses his experiences in different ways, controls himself to varying degrees and regulates his movements.

At the beginning of an affective state, a person cannot help but think about the object of his feeling and what is connected with it, involuntarily distracting himself from everything extraneous, even practically important. Expressive movements become more and more unconscious. Tears and sobs, laughter and cries, characteristic gestures and facial expressions, rapid or difficult breathing create the usual picture of increasing affect. Severe tension disrupts small movements. Inductive inhibition increasingly covers the cerebral cortex, which leads to disorganization of thinking; excitation increases in the subcortical nodes. A person experiences a persistent urge to give in to the feeling he is experiencing: fear, anger, despair, etc. Every normal person can restrain himself and not lose power over himself at this stage. Here it is important to delay the onset of affect and slow down its development. A well-known folk remedy: if you want to control yourself, try counting to yourself at least to ten.

It should be noted that any feeling can in some cases be experienced in an affective form. For example, there are cases of affective delight in stadiums or in auditoriums during the performance of some vocal-instrumental ensemble. There are frequent cases of excesses in such situations that have dramatic consequences (hysterical fits, fights, etc.). The affective experiences of “crazy” love are well studied in psychology and even better described in fiction. Even scientific discoveries after many years of persistent searching, they are sometimes accompanied by a stormy outbreak of triumph and joy. We can say that affect is bad or good depending on what feeling a person experiences and how much control a person has over himself during an affective state.

So, affect is a short-term, rapidly flowing state of strong emotional arousal, resulting from frustration (an emotionally difficult experience by a person of his failure, accompanied by a feeling of hopelessness, frustration in achieving a certain desired goal) or some other reason that has a strong effect on the psyche, usually associated with the dissatisfaction of very important human needs.

2 .3 Moods

Mood is a general emotional state that colors all human behavior over a significant period of time. The mood can be joyful or sad, cheerful or lethargic, excited or depressed, serious or frivolous, irritable or good-natured, etc. When in a bad mood, a person reacts to a joke or remark from a friend in a completely different way than when in a cheerful mood.

Usually moods are characterized by unaccountability and weak expression. The person doesn't even notice them. But sometimes the mood, for example, cheerful and cheerful or, conversely, sad, acquires significant intensity. Then it leaves its mark both on mental activity (on the train of thought, ease of consideration), and on the characteristics of a person’s movements and actions, even influencing the productivity of the work performed.

Mood is influenced by very different reasons, for example, satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the entire course of life, in particular how relationships develop at work, in the family, at school, and how all sorts of contradictions that arise in a person’s life are resolved.

A person’s mood largely depends on the general state of health, especially on the state of the nervous system and the endocrine glands that regulate metabolism. Physical education and sports are very useful for improving mood, but the meaningfulness of the activity, satisfaction with it and the moral support of loved ones are especially important.

The reasons for a particular mood are not always clear to the person experiencing it. So, a bad mood may be associated with an unfulfilled promise, not written, although promised in a letter, unfinished business. Although a person may not realize this and say that he is “simply”, “unknown why”, in a bad mood. All this gradually oppresses a person, so it is important to be able to understand your moods in order to, if possible, eliminate the objective causes of such conditions.

2 .4 Stress

A special form of experiencing feelings, close in its psychological characteristics to affect, but approaching moods in duration, is represented by stressful conditions or emotional stress.

Emotional stress is a complex process that includes physiological and psychological components. Stressors can be both unexpected, unfavorable influences (danger, pain, fear, threat, cold, humiliation, overload) and difficult situations: the need to quickly make a responsible decision, dramatically change the strategy of behavior, make an unexpected choice, respond to offenders.

Under physiological stress, the human body not only responds with a protective reaction (change in adaptive activity), but also gives a complex generalized reaction, often little dependent on the specifics of the stimulus. In this case, it is not so much the intensity of the stressor that is significant, but its personal significance for the person.

The effect of stress can be increasing or decreasing, positive or negative, the latter is more common. Stress can improve a number of psychological and physiological indicators: intensify a person’s somatic capabilities, improve his cognitive processes (attention, memory, thinking), increase motivation, and dramatically change psychological attitudes. It can accompany the process of completing a necessary task with delight and euphoria, contribute to the concentration of forces on solving assigned tasks, etc.

Stressors can be not only strong actual stimuli, but also imagined, imaginary, reminiscent of grief, threat, fear, passion, as well as other emotional states. Stress seems to redistribute and strengthen a person’s physical and mental reserves. However, various overvoltages do not pass without a trace for a person: adaptation reserves are reduced, and there is a danger of the appearance of a number of diseases. Stress is followed by a general feeling of fatigue, indifference, and sometimes depression.

Typically, there are three phases in stress: the alarm reaction, the stabilization phase and the exhaustion phase. In the first phase, the body functions with great stress. By the end of this phase, performance and resistance to a specific traumatic stressor increase. In the second phase, all parameters that were thrown out of balance in the first phase are stabilized and fixed at a new level. The body begins to work in a relatively normal mode. But if stress continues for a long time, then due to the limited reserves of the body, the third phase - exhaustion - becomes inevitable. Last phase may not occur if there are enough adaptation reserves.

In some people, under stress, activity continues to increase, there is an increase in overall tone and vitality, self-confidence, composure and determination.

For others, stress is accompanied by a decrease in activity efficiency, confusion, inability to focus attention and maintain it at the required level of concentration; fussiness, speech incontinence, aggression, and signs of psychological deafness in relation to others appear.

Mental stress is recognized as the most destructive stressor, the result of which is neurotic conditions. Their main source is information deficit, a situation of uncertainty, the inability to find a way out of a critical situation, internal conflict, a feeling of guilt, attributing responsibility to oneself even for those actions that did not depend on the person and which he did not commit.

To relieve the state of tension, a thorough analysis of all components of the stressful situation is necessary, shifting attention to external circumstances, accepting the situation as an already accomplished fact.

Conclusion

Thus, it is necessary to conclude that perception is a very complex, but at the same time, a unified process aimed at knowing what is currently affecting us.

Attention does not represent an independent mental process, since it cannot manifest itself outside of other processes. We listen carefully or inattentively, look, think, do. Thus, attention is only a property of various mental processes.

In thinking, the relationship between the conditions of activity and its goal is established, knowledge is transferred from one situation to another, and a given situation is transformed into an appropriate generalized scheme.

It should be borne in mind that, despite the close interaction of thinking and speech, these two phenomena are not the same thing. Thinking does not mean speaking out loud or to yourself. Evidence of this can be the possibility of expressing the same thought in different words, as well as the fact that we do not always find the right words to express our thoughts. Despite the fact that the thought that arises in our mind is clear to us, often we cannot find a suitable verbal form to express it.

A person not only cognizes reality in the processes of perception, memory, imagination and thinking, but at the same time relates in one way or another to certain facts of life, experiences certain feelings in relation to them.

Feelings are a special mental state experienced by a subject, where perception and understanding of something, knowledge about something appears in unity with a personal attitude towards what is perceived, understood, known or unknown. In all these cases, they talk about feeling as a special emotional state of a person. The basic emotional states that a person experiences are divided into actual emotions, feelings and affects. They are included in all mental processes and human states.

Bibliography

1. Abramova G.S. Introduction to practical psychodiagnostics. - Brest, 1993.

2. Ananyev B.G. On the problems of modern human science. M.: Nauka, 1977. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. M., 1946.

3. Witslak G. Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics / Psychodiagnostics: theory and practice - ed. N.F. Talyzina - M., 1986.

4. Gamezo M.V. Psychology course. Moscow, Enlightenment, -- 1967

5. Godfroi J. What is psychology. T.I. M.: Mir, 1992

6. Danilova N.N., Krylova A.L. Physiology of higher nervous activity. M.: MSU, 1989.

7. Izard K.E. Human emotions. M.: 1980.

8. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.

9. Milner P. Physiological psychology. M.: Mir, 1973.

10. Nemov R. S. Psychology. Book 1. General Basics psychology. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 1997.

11. General psychodiagnostics - ed. A.A. Bodaleva, V.V. Stolina - M., 1987.

12. Psychodiagnostics: theory and practice - ed. N.F. Talyzina - M., 1986.

13. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology, in 2 volumes. Moscow, Pedagogy, -1985, vol. 2

14. Simonov P.V. Emotional brain. M.: Nauka, 1981.

15. Khomskaya E.D., Bashova N.Ya. Brain and emotions. M., 1992.

16. Reader on general psychology: Psychology of thinking - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1981.

17. Khrizman T.P. Eremeeva V.P., Loskutova T.D. Emotions, speech and human brain activity. M.: Pedagogy, 1991.

18. Experimental psychology/Ed. P. Fressa and J. Piaget. Vol. 1--2. M.: Progress, 1966.

Introduction to General Psychology

This is a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed, and also generalizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.

Most Full description These components are given precisely in the sections of general psychology. But, at the same time, individual manifestations of the psyche are not studied by general psychology, as, for example, in sections of special psychology (pedagogical, developmental, etc.).

The main subject of study of general psychology is such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will touch on in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with human life and activity, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Detailed study subject to cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.

A theoretical course in general psychology usually includes the study of any specific thematic sections, areas, research, history and problems of this science. A practical course is, as a rule, mastering the methods of research, pedagogical and practical psychological work.

Methods of general psychology

Like any other science, general psychology uses a system of various methods. The basic methods for obtaining various facts in psychology are considered to be observation, conversation and experiments. Each of these methods can be modified to improve results.

Observation

Observation- This is the most ancient way of knowledge. Its simplest form is everyday observations. He uses it in his Everyday life everyone. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term (can take place even over several years), selective, continuous and special (participant observation, during which the observer is immersed in the group he himself is studying).

The standard observation procedure consists of several stages:

Setting goals and objectives;
Definition of the situation, subject and object;
Determining the methods that will have the least impact on the object under study and ensure that the necessary data is obtained;
Determining how data is maintained;
Processing of received data.

External observation (by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also self-observation. It can be either immediate - in the current moment, or delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Observation is an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

Conversation

Conversation As a psychological method, it involves direct/indirect, oral/written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life (from the person himself or from people who know him), interviews (a person answers pre-prepared questions), questionnaires and different types of questionnaires (written answers to questions).

A personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined works best. At the same time, it is important to think through the conversation beforehand, draw up a plan and identify problems that should be identified. During the conversation, questions from the person being examined are also expected. A two-way conversation produces the best results and provides more information than just answering questions.

But the main method of research is experiment.

Experiment

Experiment- this is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of activity of the subject in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.

There is a laboratory experiment taking place in special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are guided by instructions. A person knows about the experiment, although he may not know its true meaning. Some experiments are carried out repeatedly and on a whole group of people - this makes it possible to establish important patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

Another method is tests. These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. The tests are short-term tasks that are similar for everyone, the results of which determine whether the test subjects have certain mental qualities and the level of their development. Various tests are created in order to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.

Since the genetic principle plays a special role in the methods of psychological research, the genetic method is also distinguished. Its essence is the study of mental development in order to reveal general psychological patterns. This method is based on observations and experiments and builds on their results.

During use various methods It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the problem being studied. Therefore, along with the main methods of psychological research, a number of special auxiliary and intermediate techniques are often used.

Subject and object of general psychology

Any science is characterized, among other things, by the presence of its own subject and object of study. Moreover, the subject and object of science are different things. An object is only an aspect of the subject of science that is studied by the subject, i.e. researcher. Awareness of this fact is very important for understanding the specifics of general psychology, as a multifaceted and diverse science. Considering this fact, we can say the following.

Object of general psychology- this is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world on the basis of available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, serves as a mediator between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person’s ideas about the external and internal, bodily and mental.

Subject of general psychology- these are the laws of the psyche, as forms of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to study in a completely different aspects, which are studied by various branches of psychological science. The object is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.

Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to identify many objects for research within it, there are currently general theories of psychology in psychological science that are oriented towards different scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechniques to influence consciousness and control it. But no matter how difficult the paths along which it moves psychological thought, constantly transforming the object of one’s research and thereby plunging deeper into the subject, no matter what changes and additions it is subject to and no matter what terms it is designated, one can still identify the main blocks of terms that characterize the object of psychology. These include:

mental processes - psychology studies mental phenomena in the process of formation and development, the product of which are results formed into images, thoughts, emotions, etc.;
mental states - activity, depression, vigor, etc.;
mental properties of a person - determination, hard work, temperament, character;
mental new formations are the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person acquires throughout his life.

Naturally, all mental phenomena cannot exist in isolation, but are closely related to each other and influence each other. But we can consider each of them separately.

Feel

Feel- these are mental processes that are mental reflections of individual states and properties of the external world, arising from direct influence on the senses, a person’s subjective perception of external and internal stimuli with the participation of the nervous system. In psychology, sensations are usually understood as the process of reflecting various properties of objects in the surrounding world.

Sensations have the following properties:

Modality is a qualitative indicator of sensations (for vision - color, saturation, for hearing - volume, timbre, etc.);
Intensity is a quantitative indicator of sensations;
Duration is a temporary indicator of sensations;
Localization is a spatial indicator.

There are several classifications of sensations. The first of them belongs to Aristotle. They identified five basic senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste and smell. But in the 19th century, due to the increase in the types of sensations, the need for a more serious classification arose. Today there are the following classifications:

Wundt's classification - depending on mechanical, chemical and physical properties irritants;
Sherrington classification - based on the location of receptors: exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive sensations;
Head's classification - based on origin: protopathic and epicritic sensitivity.

Perception

Perception- this is a cognitive process that forms the subject’s picture of the world. A mental operation that reflects an object or phenomenon that affects the receptors of the sense organs. Perception is a complex function that determines the reception and transformation of information and forms a subjective image of an object for the subject. Through attention, a whole object is discovered, its special features and content are highlighted, and a sensory image is formed, i.e. comprehension occurs.

Perception is divided into four levels:

Detection (perceptual action) - image formation;
Discrimination (perceptual action) is the very perception of the image;
Identification (recognition action) - identification of an object with existing images;
Identification (identification action) - categorization of an object.

Perception also has its own properties: structure, objectivity, apperception, selectivity, constancy, meaningfulness. Read more about perception.

Attention

Attention- This is the selective perception of a particular object. It is expressed in how a person relates to an object. Behind attention can often be such psychological characteristics personality, such as need, interest, orientation, attitudes and others. Attention also determines how a person navigates the world around him and how this world is reflected in his psyche. The object of attention is always in the center of consciousness, and the rest is perceived more weakly. But the focus of attention tends to change.

The objects of attention are, as a rule, what has the greatest significance for a person at the moment. Maintaining attention for a long time on an object is called concentration.

Attention functions:

Detection
Selective attention
Divided attention

Attention can be voluntary and involuntary. It differs in form into:

External - aimed at the world;
Internal - aimed at the inner world of a person;
Motor

Properties of attention: direction, distribution, volume, intensity, concentration, switchability, stability.

All of them are closely related to human activities. And depending on its purpose, they can become more or less intense.

Representation

In progress representation there is a mental reconstruction of images of phenomena or objects that do not currently affect the senses. There are two meanings of this concept. The first denotes the image of a phenomenon or object that was previously perceived, but is not perceived now. The second describes the reproduction of images itself. As mental phenomena, ideas can be somewhat similar to perception, hallucinations and pseudohallucinations, or different from them.

Views are classified in several ways:

According to leading analyzers: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and temperature representations;
According to the degree of generalization - single, general and schematized;
By origin - based on perception, thinking or imagination;
According to the degree of volitional efforts - involuntary and voluntary.

Representations have the following properties: generality, fragmentation, clarity, instability.

Read more about representations in psychology in this Wikipedia article.

Memory

Memory is a mental function and type of mental activity designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store data about events in the surrounding world and the body’s reactions for a long period of time, and use it.

The following memory processes are distinguished:

Memorization;
Storage;
Play;
Forgetting.

Memory is also divided into typologies:

By sensory modality - visual, kinesthetic, sound, gustatory, pain;
In terms of content - emotional, figurative, motor;
According to the organization of memorization - procedural, semantic, episodic;
According to time characteristics - ultra-short-term, short-term, long-term;
According to physiological characteristics - long-term and short-term;
According to the availability of funds - non-mediated and indirect;
According to the presence of a goal - involuntary and voluntary;
According to the level of development - verbal-logical, figurative, emotional and motor.

You will find ways and techniques for developing memory in a separate section.

Imagination

Imagination- this is the ability of human consciousness to create and manage ideas, ideas and images. It plays a major role in mental processes such as planning, modeling, play, memory and creativity. This is the basis of a person’s visual-figurative thinking, which allows him to solve certain problems and understand the situation without practical intervention. A type of imagination is fantasy.

There is also a classification of imagination:

According to the degree of direction - active and passive imagination;
According to the results - reproductive and creative imagination;
By type of images - abstract and concrete;
According to the degree of volitional effort - unintentional and intentional;
By techniques - typification, schematization, hyperbolization, agglutination.

Mechanisms of imagination:

Typing;
Accenting;
Schematization;
Agglutination;
Hyperbolization.

Imagination is directly related to creativity. Sensitivity to emerging problems, ease of combining things, and observation skills contribute to finding creative solutions. The characteristics of imagination can be considered accuracy, originality, flexibility and fluency of thinking.

Read more about imagination in psychology in this article.

In addition, our website is devoted to the problems of imagination development.

Thinking

In general psychology there are many definitions of the thinking process. According to one of the most popular definitions:

Thinking- This highest stage human processing of information and the process of establishing connections between phenomena and objects of the external world.

It is the highest level of human cognition, as a process of reflection of the surrounding reality in his brain.

Thinking is divided into:

Abstract-logical;
Visual-figurative;
Specific subject;
Visually effective.

And the main forms of thinking are:

Concept - thoughts that highlight and generalize phenomena and objects;
Judgment - denial or affirmation of something;
Inference - conclusion.

These and other components of the thought process are discussed in ours.

Speech

Speech are called a form of communication between people through linguistic structures. In this process, thoughts are formed and formulated using language, and the received speech information is perceived and understood. Speech is the form of existence of human language, because... speech is language in action.

Language (speech) performs the following functions:

A tool for intellectual activity;
Method of communication;
A way of existence, as well as the assimilation and transfer of experience.

Speech is the most important part of human activity, which contributes to knowledge of the world around us and the transfer of knowledge and experience to others. Being a means of expressing thoughts, it is one of the main mechanisms of human thinking. It depends on the form of communication and is thus divided into oral (speaking/listening) and written (writing/reading).

Speech has the following properties:

Content - the number and significance of expressed aspirations, feelings and thoughts;
Clarity - correctness;
Expressiveness - emotional coloring and richness of language;
Effectiveness - the influence exerted on other people, their feelings, thoughts, emotions, etc.

You can read more about oral and written communication in our trainings on and.

Emotions

Emotions- these are mental processes that reflect the subject’s attitude towards possible or real situations. Emotions should not be confused with such emotional processes as feelings, affects and moods. To date, emotions have been poorly studied and are understood differently by many experts. For this reason, the definition given above cannot be considered the only correct one.

Characteristics of emotions are:

Tone (valence) - positive or negative emotions;
Intensity - strong or weak emotions;
Stenicity - influence on human activity: sthenic (inducing action) and asthenic (reducing activity);
Content - reflects different facets of the meaning of the situations that caused emotions.

Emotions in most cases manifest themselves in physiological reactions, because the latter depend on them. But today there is debate about the fact that intentional physiological states can cause certain emotions.

These and other issues of understanding and managing emotions are discussed in our.

Will

Will- this is the property of a person to consciously control his psyche and actions. The achievement of set goals and results can be considered a manifestation of will. It has many positive qualities that influence the success of human activity. The main volitional qualities are considered to be persistence, courage, patience, independence, focus, determination, initiative, endurance, courage, self-control and others. Will encourages action, allows a person to manage desires and realize them, develops self-control and strength of character.

Signs of an act of will:

Efforts of will in many cases are aimed at overcoming one’s weaknesses;
Performing any action without receiving pleasure from this process;
Availability of an action plan;
Putting effort into doing something.

Read more about will in psychology on Wikipedia.

Mental properties and states

Mental properties- these are stable mental phenomena that influence what a person does and give his socio-psychological characteristics. To the structure mental properties includes ability, character, temperament and orientation.

Orientation is a conglomerate of needs, goals and motives of a person that determine the nature of his activities. It expresses the whole meaning of a person’s actions and his worldview.

Temperament gives characteristics to a person’s activity and behavior. It may manifest itself in hypersensitivity, emotionality, stress resistance, ability to adapt to external conditions or lack thereof, etc.

Character is a set of traits and qualities that are regularly manifested in a person. There are always individual characteristics, but there are also characteristics that are characteristic of all people - purposefulness, initiative, discipline, activity, determination, perseverance, endurance, courage, will, etc.

Abilities are the mental properties of a person, reflecting his characteristics, which allow a person to successfully engage in certain types of activities. Abilities are distinguished between special (for a specific type of activity) and general (for most types of activity).

Mental conditions is a system of psychological characteristics that ensure a person’s subjective perception of the world around him. Mental states influence how mental processes proceed, and when regularly repeated, they can become part of a person’s personality - its property.

Mental states are related to each other. But they can still be classified. The most common ones are:

Personality states;
States of consciousness;
States of intelligence.

Types of mental states are divided according to the following criteria:

According to the source of formation - conditioned by the situation or personally;
According to the degree of expression - superficial and deep;
By emotional coloring- positive, neutral and negative;
By duration - short-term, medium-duration, long-term;
According to the degree of awareness - conscious and unconscious;
According to the level of manifestation - physiological, psychophysiological, psychological.

The following mental states are common to most people:

Optimal performance;
Tension;
Interest;
Inspiration;
Fatigue;
Monotony;
Stress;
Relaxation;
Wakefulness.

Other common mental states include love, anger, fear, surprise, admiration, depression, detachment and others.

Read more about mental properties and conditions on Wikipedia.

Motivation

Motivation- this is an incentive to perform an action. This process controls human behavior and determines its direction, stability, activity and organization. Thanks to motivation, a person can satisfy his needs.

There are several types of motivation:

External - due to external conditions;
Internal - due to internal circumstances (content of activity);
Positive - based on positive incentives;
Negative - based on negative incentives;
Sustainable - determined by human needs;
Unstable - requires additional incentive.

Motivation can be of the following types:

From something (basic type);
To something (basic type);
Individual;
Group;
Cognitive.

There are certain motives that in most cases guide people:

Self-affirmation;
Identification with other people;
Power;
Self-development;
Achieving something;
Social significance;
The desire to be in the company of certain people;
Negative factors.

Motivation issues are discussed in more detail in this training.

Temperament and character

Temperament- this is a complex of mental characteristics of a personality associated with its dynamic characteristics (that is, with tempo, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states). The basis of character formation.

The following main types of temperament are distinguished:

Phlegmatic - signs: emotional stability, perseverance, calmness, regularity;
Choleric - signs: frequent mood swings, emotionality, imbalance;
Sanguine - signs: liveliness, mobility, productivity;
Melancholic - signs: impressionability, vulnerability.

Different types of temperament have different properties that can have a positive or negative impact on a person's personality. Temperament type does not affect abilities, but it does affect how people express themselves in life. Depending on temperament there are:

Perception, thinking, attention and other mental processes;
Stability and plasticity of mental phenomena;
Pace and rhythm of actions;
Emotions, will and other mental properties;
Direction of mental activity.

Character- this is a complex of permanent mental properties of a person that determine his behavior. Character traits form the properties of a person that determine his lifestyle and behavior.

Personality traits vary across groups. There are four in total:

Attitude towards people - respect, sociability, callousness, etc.;
Attitude to activity - conscientiousness, diligence, responsibility, etc.;
Attitude towards oneself - modesty, arrogance, self-criticism, selfishness, etc.;
Attitude to things - care, accuracy, etc.

Each person has a character unique to him, the properties and characteristics of which are determined, for the most part, by social factors. There is also always an accentuation of character - strengthening of its individual traits. It should also be noted that there is a close relationship between character and temperament, because temperament influences the development of certain character traits and the manifestation of its characteristics, and at the same time, using some of its character traits, a person, if necessary, can control the manifestations of his temperament.

Read more about character and temperament in our training.

All of the above, of course, is not comprehensive information about what general human psychology is. This lesson is intended only to give a general idea and indicate directions for further study.

In order to dive deeper into the study of general psychology, you need to arm yourself with the most popular and influential tools in scientific circles, which are the works of famous authors of textbooks and manuals on psychology. Below is a short description of some of them.

Maklakov A. G. General psychology. In compiling this textbook, the most modern achievements in the field of psychology and pedagogy were used. On their basis, issues of psychology, mental processes, properties and their states, as well as many other features are considered. The textbook contains illustrations and explanations, as well as a bibliographic reference. Intended for teachers, graduate students and university students.

Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. For more than 50 years, this textbook has been considered one of the best psychology textbooks in Russia. It presents and summarizes the achievements of Soviet and world psychological science. The work is intended for teachers, graduate students and university students.

Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology. This manual presents the basic concepts of psychological science, its methods and problems. The book contains a lot of data on research results, examples from fiction and real-life situations, and also perfectly combines a serious scientific level and an accessible presentation of the material. The work will be of interest to a wide range of readers and people just beginning to master psychology.

Petrovsky A.V. General psychology. Expanded and revised edition of “General Psychology”. The textbook presents the basics of psychological science, and also summarizes information from many textbooks ("Age and Educational Psychology", "Practical Lessons in Psychology", "Collection of Problems in General Psychology"). The book is intended for students who are serious about studying human psychology.

The role played by general psychology in modern society, cannot be overestimated. Today it is necessary to have at least a minimum of psychological knowledge, because general psychology opens the door to the world of a person’s mind and soul. Any educated person should know the basics of this science of life, because... It is very important to get to know not only the world around you, but also other people. Thanks to psychological knowledge, you can build your relationships with others and organize your personal activities much more effectively, as well as improve yourself. It is for these reasons that all the thinkers of antiquity always said that a person must first know himself.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on a topic this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.

100 RUR bonus for first order

Select the type of work Diploma work Course work Abstract Master's thesis Practice report Article Report Review Test work Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions Creative work Essay Drawing Essays Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Master's thesis Laboratory work On-line help

Find out the price

In its manifestations, the psyche is complex and diverse. Usually there are three large groups of mental phenomena, namely:

1) mental processes,

2) mental states,

3) mental properties.

Mental processes are a dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena.

A mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form of a reaction. It must be borne in mind that the end of a mental process is closely related to the beginning of a new process. Hence the continuity of mental activity in a person’s waking state.

Mental processes are caused both by external influences and by stimulation of the nervous system coming from the internal environment of the body.

All mental processes are divided into:

1. Regulatory:

Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome internal and external difficulties when performing purposeful actions and deeds;

Attention is the direction and concentration of mental activity on something specific, implying an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual and motor activity of the individual.

2. Cognitive:

a) sensual

Sensation is the simplest mental. a process consisting of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as internal states of the body under the direct influence of a stimulus on the corresponding receptors;

Perception - subjective image object, phenomenon or process that directly affects analyzer or a system of analyzers.

Presentation - visual image object or phenomenon (event) arising on the basis of past experience (data sensations And perceptions) by his playback V memory or in imagination.

b) logical

Thinking is the highest mental function, i.e. the process of a generalized and indirect reflection of reality in its essential connections and relationships, the highest form of human creative activity. M. insofar as the process of reflection of objects, insofar as it is a creative transformation of their subjective images into consciousness people, their values And sense to resolve real contradictions in the circumstances of people's life, to form new goals, discover new means and plans for achieving them, revealing the essence of the objective forces of nature and society.

3. Emotional

Emotions are mental. processes that occur in the form of experiences and reflect the personal significance and assessment of external and internal situations for human life.

4. Integrative:

Memory is the process of organizing and preserving past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity and return to the sphere of consciousness.

Speech is a historically established form communication people through language.It is a language that functions in the context of individual consciousness.

Speech communication is carried out according to the laws of a given language (Russian, English, etc.), which is a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic means and rules of communication.

The role of mental processes in the development of personality is great, since they ensure the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity.

In complex mental activity various processes are connected and form a single stream of consciousness, providing an adequate reflection of reality.

Mental processes occur with varying speed and intensity depending on the characteristics of external influences and the state of the individual.

Introduction

The topic of the essay is “Psychological processes.”

Psychological processes are inherent in every person. Mental processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking and speech. They are essential components human activity.

Psychological processes are not just involved in activity, but they develop in it. All mental processes are interconnected and represent a single whole. In the absence of any of the mental processes (speech, thinking, etc.), a person becomes inferior. Activity shapes mental processes. Any activity is a combination of internal and external behavioral actions and operations. We will consider each type of mental activity separately.

Basic psychological processes and states

Traditionally in domestic psychology It is customary to distinguish two groups of psychological processes.

1. Specific, or actually cognitive, processes, which are sensation, perception and thinking. The result of these processes is the subject’s knowledge about the world and about himself, obtained either through the senses or rationally:

· sensation is the identification of the properties of an object, sensory, sensuality;

· perception is the perception of an object as a whole, as well as perception is the perception of images and objects;

· thinking is a reflection of the relationships between objects, their properties essential for cognition.

2. Nonspecific, i.e. universal, mental processes - memory, attention and imagination. These processes are also called end-to-end, in the sense that they pass through any activity and ensure its implementation. Universal mental processes are necessary conditions for cognition, but are not reducible to it. Thanks to universal mental processes, a cognitive, developing subject has the opportunity to maintain the unity of “his Self” over time:

memory allows a person to retain past experiences;

· attention helps to extract actual (real) experience;

· Imagination predicts future experiences.

Cognitive psychological processes

Feel

So, the process of cognition is the acquisition, retention and preservation of knowledge about the world. Sensations are one of the components of the cognitive process.

Sensations are defined as the process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world during their direct impact on receptors. The physiological basis of sensation is nervous process, arising from the action of a stimulus on an analyzer adequate to it. To this, perhaps, we can only add that sensations also reflect the state of the subject’s body with the help of receptors located in his body. Sensations are the initial source of knowledge, an important condition for the formation of the psyche and its normal functioning.

The need for constant sensations is clearly manifested in the case when there are no external stimuli (with sensory isolation). As experiments have shown, in this case the psyche ceases to function normally: hallucinations occur, thinking is impaired, a pathology of perception of one’s body is noted, etc. Specific problems of a psychological nature arise with sensory deprivation, i.e., when the influx of external influences is limited, which is well known using the example of the development of the psyche of people who are blind or deaf, as well as those with poor vision and hearing.

Human sensations are extremely diverse, although since the time of Aristotle, for a very long time they talked about only five senses - vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste. In the 19th century knowledge about the composition of sensations has expanded dramatically as a result of the description and study of their new types, such as vestibular, vibration, “muscular-articular” or kinesthetic, etc.

Properties of sensations

Whatever the sensation, it can be described using several characteristics, properties inherent in it.

1. Modality is a qualitative characteristic in which the specificity of sensation as a simple mental signal is manifested in comparison with a nervous signal. First of all, such types of sensations as visual, auditory, olfactory, etc. are distinguished. However, each type of sensation has its own modal characteristics. For visual sensations, these may be color tone, lightness, saturation; for auditory - pitch, timbre, volume; for tactile - hardness, roughness, etc.

2. Localization - spatial characteristics of sensations, i.e. information about the localization of the stimulus in space.

Sometimes (as, for example, in the case of pain and interoceptive, “internal” sensations) localization is difficult and uncertain. The “probe problem” is interesting in this regard: when we write or cut something, the sensations are localized at the tip of the pen or knife, that is, not at all where the probe contacts the skin and acts on it.

3. Intensity is a classic quantitative characteristic. The problem of measuring the intensity of sensation is one of the main ones in psychophysics.

The basic psychophysical law reflects the relationship between the magnitude of the sensation and the magnitude of the acting stimulus. Psychophysics explains the variety of observed forms of behavior and mental states primarily by differences in the physical situations that cause them. The task is to establish a connection between body and soul, an object and the sensation associated with it. The area of irritation causes sensation. Each sense organ has its own boundaries - which means there is a region of sensation. Such variants of the basic psychophysical law are known as the logarithmic law of G. Fechner, the power law of S. Stevens, as well as the generalized psychophysical law proposed by Yu. M. Zabrodin.

4. Duration is a temporary characteristic of sensation. It is determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. The sensation occurs later than the stimulus begins to act, and does not disappear immediately with its cessation. The period from the onset of the stimulus to the onset of sensation is called the latent (hidden) period of sensation. It is not the same for different types of sensations (for tactile - 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, for taste - 50 ms) and can change dramatically in diseases of the nervous system.

After the cessation of the stimulus, its trace remains for some time in the form of a consistent image, which can be either positive (corresponding to the characteristics of the stimulus) or negative (having opposite characteristics, for example, colored in an additional color). We usually do not notice positive consistent images because of their short duration. The appearance of sequential images can be explained by the phenomenon of retinal fatigue.

Auditory sensations, similar to visual ones, can also be accompanied by sequential images. The most comparable phenomenon in this case is “ringing in the ears”, i.e. unpleasant feeling, which is often accompanied by exposure to deafening sounds.

The concept of mental processes. Mental processes are elementary units that we can distinguish in mental activity, its “atoms”. Processes are primary - everything is built on their basis. a complex system functioning of the psyche. Processes are dynamic - they have their own course and development. Let us describe the main processes.

Sensation and perception. Sensations are elementary mental processes, which are a subjective reflection by a living being of simple properties of the surrounding world in the form of mental phenomena, elements, components of perception, from which images are composed. The following types of sensations are distinguished: skin (touch or pressure, there are temperature and pain), proprioceptive (body positions in space, relative positions of body parts), organic (coming from nerve cells internal organs), gustatory and olfactory, visual and auditory. Sensations are possible due to the presence of receptors - special nerve cells that perceive this effect, pathways (nerves) and cells of the central nervous system that are capable of receiving and processing a particular signal. The collections of these nervous formations are called sensory systems. Phylogenetically, the most ancient, i.e., the earliest that arose in evolution, are the sensations directly related to the state of the body - pain, temperature, the younger ones - gustatory and olfactory. Then in the history of species, visual sensory systems arose, and the youngest are auditory.

Each sensation has absolute and relative thresholds. The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus that can cause a sensation. For example, for the sense of smell it can be several hundred molecules of a substance. The absolute threshold, however, is individual for each person. Relative, or differential, threshold is the magnitude of a stimulus that can produce a sensation that is different from that caused by a stimulus of a different magnitude. Thus, a person can hear a sound with a frequency of 16 Hz, but is able to distinguish one sound from another only starting from a height of 40 Hz. There is also an upper threshold of sensation, which usually borders on painful sensations, for example, sounds above 14,000 Hz cause pain.

Auditory sensations allow us to describe sound in terms of volume, pitch, timbre. Loudness corresponds to the strength of sound, measured in decibels. A person perceives sound from 3 to 130–140 dB, the last number corresponds to the upper limit of audibility, the pain threshold. The pitch of the perceived sound, or tonality, is related to the frequency of the sound, measured in hertz. The lower threshold of audibility is 16 Hz, the upper one is about 20,000 Hz (for comparison: in a dog it is 38,000 Hz). Our usual range lies in the area from 1000 to 3000 Hz, the pain threshold is at the level of 14,000-16,000 Hz. Timbre is a complex characteristic of sound that does not have a direct physical analogue; as timbre, we distinguish a complex pattern of sound tones - a combination of sounds of a certain loudness and height.

Visual sensations are formed by determining color tone, brightness and saturation. The shape of an object is conveyed by the reflection of light spots on the retina different color and tone, and movement is due to the movement of these spots.

A person perceives light waves with a length from 390 to 780 nanometers, i.e. bottom line is on the level infrared radiation, top – ultraviolet. The human eye is capable of perceiving a light pulse of 8-47 quanta (this is the lower threshold of perception) and a 1–1.5% change in surface illumination (this is the differential threshold of visual perception). The upper threshold of visual perception is the most relative - the state of blindness depends on the eye's adaptation to illumination - and can even be caused by normal daylight if the eye is accustomed to a lack of light.

In humans, visual perception is the leading one - according to experts, 90% of all information comes through this channel. Hearing, smell, touch and other channels of perception are much less important.

The process of perception is built on the basis of sensations.
Perception is the process of a person receiving and processing various information, culminating in the formation of an image. Perception is not just the result of the integration of data entering the brain through various senses; information stored in memory, thinking and other mental processes are connected to the formation of a holistic image. The hallmark of perception is integrity. Let us explain: when describing an object only with the words “cold”, “big”, “white”, we are still at the level of sensations, but as soon as we correlate these data and receive a holistic image of the object (be it a refrigerator or the mythical Gorgon Medusa), we can talk about perception. An integral feature of perception is also meaningfulness: we can always think about the formed image and describe it in words.

The image contains not only information received from the senses - other cognitive processes are also involved in the process of its formation, and the process of completing the image is underway. In this case, normal errors often occur. So, if you present subjects with a white cylinder with a red end, most people are inclined to assume that the second end, which is not visible, that is, is beyond the limits of perception, is also red. On the one hand, the process of completing the image is necessary in everyday life - from fragmentary elements of the image we can most often guess the entire object, on the other hand - this effect still sometimes leads to errors of perception.

An illusion is an image that is a product of real sensations, but incorrectly reflects reality. This is a perception error that arises due to interference in the process of perception of memory, desire, fantasy, some attitude or other mental phenomenon. For example, a person may mistake a jacket hanging on a chair in a dark room for a sitting person, or an atypically shaped cloud for a flying saucer. The occurrence of illusions is considered a normal mental phenomenon. They should be distinguished from hallucinations - completely constructed images that are subjectively perceived as real objects. Thus, a person can claim that he sees objects or hears sounds that do not exist in objective reality. Hallucinosis is considered a pathological process.

We live in a four-dimensional world: we know three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. The perception of space is not innate and develops during the learning process. A person determines the size of objects by comparing them with other objects and relying on his previous experience. However, if the subject is presented with an isolated object, for example a cube on a white background, which is shown through a special hole in the screen so that the distance to it cannot be determined, then the person will not be able to determine its size. The perception of space arises due to the relationship between the distance to an object and its size. Binocular vision is important in the perception of space, but life experience is decisive - we learn to determine distance and size and can perceive space using only one eye.

Very rarely does one pay attention to another dimension available human perception, – perception of time. Time is perceived as irreversible uniform motion from past to future. We have learned to express time in units of duration: seconds, hours, days, years. The subjective perception of time is different from the objective one: it can flow unevenly - stretch or contract. In the experiment, one group of subjects was offered interesting games, while the other was placed in separate empty rooms and asked to wait. People who were having fun perceived the 10-minute period of time as very short - 2-3 minutes, and those waiting designated the same time period as 15 minutes. Thus, it became known that subjective time flows unevenly - it can “slow down” and “speed up” depending on the circumstances.

Knowledge about sensations and perceptions is important when obtaining testimony, deciding whether to recognize a person as sane, and identifying special mental states that are important when considering criminal and civil cases.

Attention and memory. Attention is a state of mental concentration, concentration on some object. Attention is not an independent process, it is a process of regulation of other cognitive processes, a characteristic of mental activity, the state of our perception, consciousness, thinking, memory. Attention always has an object to which it is directed, be it an object in the surrounding world, a memory or a fantasy. The roots of attention can be traced to a state of alertness, vigilance, and the orienting reflex. Attention is a mental process designed to quickly restructure the psyche in response to changing environmental conditions and maintain a special mode of functioning of the psyche for the required time.

They distinguish between involuntary and voluntary attention. Involuntary attention is primary, a person is born with it, and it persists throughout life. Involuntary attention is established and maintained regardless of conscious desire and will. Voluntary attention is the ability to consciously direct attention to an object; its formation is associated with the development of will. It is believed that voluntary attention is normally formed by the age of 4-6 years. Voluntary and involuntary attention perform slightly different functions: involuntary attention is passive, uncontrollable, but it plays the role of a “watchman,” directing cognitive processes to the most important, strong external stimuli, including those that are rejected by consciousness; voluntary attention is active, it is subordinate to the will and makes it possible to arbitrarily adjust mental processes, ignoring information rejected by consciousness.

This division of attention into two types is to a certain extent ideal, which is why some authors also call voluntary-involuntary attention a mixed type: attention that does not require willpower, but is under the control of consciousness. This is a situation when we monitor some phenomenon “out of the corner of our eye.”

Attention can be described in terms of its concentration, volume, stability and switchability. Concentration of attention, or concentration, expresses the intensity of the connection between an object and consciousness. Attention span is measured by the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. Stability is the duration during which a given concentration of attention is maintained. Switchability is the ability to reorient cognitive processes from one subject to another. These characteristics of attention are functionally interrelated: a change in one entails a change in the others. So, high concentration leads to decreased switching ability or reduces attention span.

It is noted that in a 2-4 year old child, switchability is two to three times higher than in a 4-6 year old child. These data indirectly indicate the process of formation of voluntary attention (indirectly, since concentration of attention does not yet mean voluntariness). Voluntariness is the ability to consciously change the nature of attention.

Psychological examination of attention is important when obtaining testimony, assessing the maturity of a person, identifying special mental states that are important when considering criminal and civil cases.

Memory is the process of remembering, storing and subsequently reproducing information. Memory is a reflection and reproduction of past events, one of the basic mental processes. The basis of memorization is imprinting - an almost exact copy of the picture of reality. Initially, in a newborn, memory exists only in the form of involuntary imprinting, and only later, with the development of thinking, will, consciousness, and voluntary attention, the second type of memory is formed - voluntary memory. Thus, we distinguish two types of memory - involuntary and voluntary. Voluntary, or conscious, memory differs from imprinting and involuntary memory by selectivity; it is mediated by the processes of voluntary attention and thinking and is always purposeful. Memorization is not a passive process and therefore not photographic: already at the stage of storing information, its primary processing occurs - generalization, systematization, highlighting essential features and eliminating all that is unnecessary.

Voluntary memorization, which occurs at later stages of development and is seemingly more progressive, is nevertheless inferior to involuntary memorization. In one of the experiments, subjects in the first case were shown pictures and given instructions to remember as much as possible, and in the second case they were given an abstract goal not related to memorization. It turned out that a greater amount of information was retained in the case when the task was not to remember the pictures. Thus, it was concluded that we learn most of the information thanks to involuntary memory.

There are short-term and long-term memory. Short-term memory retains information for a period of time ranging from several seconds to two minutes, although this duration is arbitrary. Long-term memory is capable of retaining information for several minutes, hours, days, years. Short-term memory, as a rule, stores information for as long as the object is in the sphere of our attention, and as soon as we are distracted, its contents are erased. Long-term memory stores information in an inactive state, but under certain conditions it can be activated.

Short-term memory is often compared to computer RAM, and long-term memory is compared to permanent memory. But unlike a computer, the human brain eventually erases most of the unclaimed information or that which it does not use for a long time. This is another mental mechanism that provides a flexible response to changing conditions - unnecessary things are erased, making room for more useful information. This process is described by the “forgetting curve” - the first hour about 59.2% of information is stored in memory, after 9 hours 35.8% remains, after a day - 27.3%, after two days - 25.4%, and then forgetting becomes insignificant. Let us note that forgetting occurs rapidly during the first 9 hours, then less rapidly within two days, and the remaining amount of information is stored by long-term memory in an almost unchanged volume. Given the law of the “forgetting curve,” we can assume that the further away an event is in time, the less we can remember about it. However, there is an amendment to this rule. Reminiscence is a phenomenon when subsequent reproduction of information is richer than the previous one; it is gradual recall. Reminiscence is possible due to the fact that, focusing on the need to remember, we raise ever deeper layers of memory, “unwind” the memory, and receive hints from the outside.

In memorizing information, its meaningfulness, the emotional richness of the experience, the relevance of the information, i.e., its significance for the rememberer, play a role. Meaningful, logically linked information is remembered much better than unstructured information: a person is able to remember on average 7-10 words and only 4-7 meaningless combinations of sounds from the first reading. In situations of emotional stress, memorization improves. We better assimilate information that is meaningful to us, and forget what does not cause an emotional or mental response.

Memory is not only the assimilation and storage of information, but also the ability to subsequently reproduce it, i.e., remember. The first step to remembering is recognition - this is the stage when we cannot yet consciously recall an image from memory, but are able to distinguish information that has already been perceived once from new information. A typical example is a situation where a person cannot describe the face of another person, but is able to identify him upon meeting. True memorization is characterized by the ability to consciously reproduce an image stored in memory. Reproduction is not a mechanical reproduction of an image, it is a reconstruction, during which the image is built anew. In the experiment, subjects were shown a geometric composition resembling a house, but with one unfinished wall. When, after some time, they were asked to reproduce the image, most of the subjects built this figure, completing the construction of a face that did not exist in the original. Thus, it was shown that memorization is not photographic; the integrity of perception and logic “prompted” another line to the subjects. These are normal memory errors, but there are also pathological forms described below. Pathological memory impairments most often result from mental illness or traumatic brain injury.

Amnesia is loss of memory, temporary or permanent. Temporary memory loss - loss of memory of events that occurred over a period of time from several minutes to several days - can be the result of a traumatic brain injury or emotional disorder (affect or severe stress). Retrograde amnesia - forgetting events of the past - can occur in two forms: from the present to the past and from the past to the present. In the first case, a person may not remember what he did during the day, whether he had lunch, or watched a TV program, but with sufficient accuracy he recalls events relating to his youth and youth. In the second case, he remembers the events of the last days, but cannot indicate where he was born, studied, lived and worked. Paramnesia, or false memory, can manifest itself in the form of pseudo-reminiscences - the replacement of events with memories from other moments in life, the replacement of real events with heard or read facts, confabulations - the replacement of real events of the past with fantastic, fictitious pictures. In all cases of paramnesia, the person himself sincerely believes that his memories are real.

Let's return to the norm: depending on the leading channel of perception, memory can be visual, auditory (auditory), kinesthetic (motor), depending on the leading type of thinking - visual-figurative or verbal-logical. Memorization and reproduction occur more easily if a person uses the type of memory that is more developed.

Memory can be characterized in terms of “accuracy”, “capacity”, “longevity”. Accuracy is a quantity that expresses the ratio of correctly reproduced units of information to incorrect ones. Volume expresses the total number of correctly reproduced units of information. Long-term is the duration of retention in memory of a constant volume of correctly reproduced units of information.

Psychological examination of memory helps to clarify complex issues regarding the testimony of victims, witnesses and suspects, including the results of identification, and the identification of special mental states important for making a judicial decision.

Thinking and intelligence. Thinking is a mental process of a generalized and indirect reflection of reality; in essence, it is a process of information processing. Thinking operates with signs and symbols in which the facts of objective reality are encoded. Thinking is a mental process that reveals the relationships between objects and phenomena, thanks to it we compare, compare, distinguish, and reveal the relationships between data obtained through the perception system. Thinking reveals the properties of things and phenomena and reveals new, abstract properties that are inaccessible directly to the senses. We do not need to directly observe a phenomenon in order to analyze it and draw a conclusion - we can logically process information about it. This feature of thinking is possible thanks to speech - a system for transmitting signs and symbols.

Thinking and speech are closely interconnected; they cannot develop and exist without each other. Through speech and communication, concepts are conveyed to the child - symbols, behind which a set of integral features of the object being described is hidden, and basic techniques for processing information - logic of thinking - are instilled.

The thought process consists of the operations of analysis, classification and synthesis, or integration, of information. Analysis makes it possible to separate essential and inessential properties of an object or phenomenon, random and necessary connections, that is, to separate simple coincidences and real patterns. The task of thinking is to identify essential, significant features and connections, after which its next stage is possible - classification. The basis of the classification is the identification of concepts - indirect and generalized knowledge about a subject, based on the disclosure of its more or less significant objective connections and relationships. The process of information integration allows you to move from isolated cases to patterns and forecasting: thinking in a generalized form reveals the principle of solving a problem and anticipates the solution of similar problems that may arise in the future.

Thinking disorders are a consequence of a violation of any of the operations that make up it. A violation of the analysis operation consists in the inability to separate essential, significant features from secondary ones; as a result, a person cannot responsibly move to the stage of classification and then to generalization. In cases of impaired thinking, a person either “splits” reality too much, that is, he sees only differences in objects, but does not find common features, for example, he cannot classify a cat and a dog into the same class - animals, or falls into overly broad generalizations, relying on weak signs and connections of objects, for example, finds a similarity between a flower and an airplane in that they are both “drawn in blue.” Underdevelopment of thinking is characterized by the inability to escape from specific concepts and reach a higher, abstract level. Thinking disorder is a pathological process.

Normally, every thought process is an action aimed at solving a specific problem. This task includes the goal of the individual’s mental activity, correlated with the conditions by which it is given. The goal always arises in connection with the existence of certain motives or the need to satisfy a certain need. The motive creates a problematic situation, which is the starting point of the thought process. The problem situation determines the involvement of the individual in the thinking process.

There are several types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and abstract, or theoretical. Visual and effective thinking arises in ontogenesis, i.e., the development of the individual, most early. It is based on the empirical experience of a person, the concrete experience of his communication with surrounding objects. A simple example of visual-figurative thinking is the conclusion that if taps do not open to the left, they open to the right. Visual-figurative thinking is a higher level of thinking development. Here a person does not need to empirically find out the facts of reality, but it is enough to scroll through the possible options in his mind. Thus, we can imagine possible options for connecting the slats of a kite without having any real experience in carpentry, but having a general understanding of options for connecting rigid parts. Abstract thinking is the highest level of development of thinking, when a person, in the process of solving a problem, turns to concepts and logical schemes, performs actions in the mind, without resorting to practical experience. It is thanks to abstract thinking that we are subject to problems of the type: A is equal to B, B is not equal to C, therefore, A is not equal to C (with the help of this scheme a very wide range of problems can be solved). The result of abstract thinking is always a judgment - a conclusion about the inherent properties of objects or phenomena and significant connections between them.

Based on what type of information a person is dealing with, mathematical, verbal, artistic, and spatial thinking are distinguished. Thanks to the leading method of information processing, logical and associative thinking can be noted. Logical thinking is based on given sequences, and associative thinking operates by bringing analogies.

In connection with issues of thinking, another important concept should be mentioned - intelligence.

Intelligence is a relatively stable structure of an individual’s mental abilities, a certain level of development of a person’s mental activity, which provides the opportunity to acquire new knowledge and use it in the course of life. Intelligence is essentially a set of skills for solving problem situations and strategies for finding solutions. Psychologists have developed criteria for assessing the degree of development of mental functions - intelligence quotient.

Psychological examination of thinking may be important for identifying a person’s maturity, sanity, ability to understand the nature of the actions being performed, and restoring the process of planning a crime.

Speech is a system of signs and symbols used by humans to represent, process, store and transmit information. In evolution, speech arose together with thinking in the process of social and labor activity and took shape in the process of socio-historical development of mankind in unity with thinking. Thanks to speech, the individual consciousness of each person, not limited to personal experience, his own observations, through language is nourished and enriched by the results of social experience, and the observations and knowledge of all people become or can become the property of everyone.

Speech activity performs two main functions - communicative and significative. The significative role of language is associated with its sign-semantic side. With the help of words in which concepts and meanings are encoded, we can exchange information about the world around us, transmit information and receive it without having a direct connection with the object in question. The communicative side of communication is associated with the transmission of emotions and feelings of communicating people.

In accordance with these components, verbal and nonverbal components of communication are distinguished. The verbal component includes all factual information transmitted to the interlocutor. To make it easier to understand the differences between verbal and nonverbal, we point out that we can convey all verbal information using written speech. The nonverbal component, which carries an emotional component, is contained in the speaker’s facial expressions, posture, gestures, intonation, speed of speech, and gaze. Based on the characteristics of the nonverbal component of the speaker’s speech, one can determine his emotional state, which helps to clarify a person’s attitude to events, the characteristics of his personal attitudes and identify lies.

Speech disorders can take two main forms: the inability to speak, i.e. the inability to translate a concept into verbal form, and misunderstanding of speech - the inability to extract meaning from a word-symbol. Such deviations are most often the result of gross disturbances in brain activity and traumatic brain injuries.

In legal practice, the psychology of speech, the main function of which is the ability to be a means of communication, has general meaning, but can also be useful in diagnosing special mental conditions that are important for the consideration of criminal and civil cases, as well as for identifying false testimony.

Imagination, will and emotions. Imagination is the ability to imagine an absent or truly non-existent object, hold it in consciousness and manipulate it. It is believed that imagination is the ability of only the human psyche; it is the basis of visual and figurative thinking, foreseeing the future, planning and implementing behavioral programs. Thanks to imagination, fantasies are possible as complex, detailed pictures of a non-existent reality or an imagined future. It provides a creative transformation of reality due to its innovative potential.

The imagination, however, is not free from objective reality - the new images created by it are a combination of what was previously seen and objectively exists. This is the process of compilation (regrouping and combination) of already known images and facts. This kind of creative transformation serves as the basis for intellectually innovative activity, which essentially ensures the thinking process. Thanks to imagination, the goals set are provided with a program of action and ultimately are realized in action. In other words, activity planning initially occurs in fantasies.

The tendency to increased fantasy is the tendency of an individual to create pictures of reality that do not have direct significance for his life path, while fantasies are experienced very vividly and often replace reality. Living into a fictional reality can be so strong that the individual begins to sincerely believe in the events he himself created. Being quite normal for children and early adolescence, a tendency to increased fantasy in adulthood indicates deviations in personality development.

Analysis of the nature of the imagination process and its content is important when considering the individual psychological qualities of a person that are important for making a judicial decision and restoring the process of planning a crime.

Will is a process of mental regulation designed to create and direct effort and, as necessary, maintain tension. Thanks to the will, a person can, on his own initiative, based on perceived need, carry out actions in accordance with a given plan. The will ensures self-determination and self-regulation of activity and the course of various mental processes.

Will is closely related to consciousness and attention. The volitional process is always conscious: it can be monitored, analyzed, caused arbitrarily, it is a means of control, but it is also controlled by consciousness. Attention is necessary for the implementation of volitional effort: only what is in the sphere of a person’s attention can be subject to the influence of volitional effort.

The will is formed and developed under the influence of control over human behavior by society and only then is interiorized, that is, it becomes a purely internal mental process - self-control of the individual. The formation of will is associated with the transition from external methods of action to internal ones.

Volitional action is always purposeful; through this action, a person strives to achieve the goal set before him according to a given plan, subordinating his impulses to conscious control and changing the surrounding reality in accordance with his plan. The actor, directing effort to achieve a goal, can evaluate the result of the action, comparing it with the goal to which it was directed. The effectiveness of volitional effort is assessed by a person through the successful or unsuccessful achievement of a set goal.

For the emergence of volitional effort, certain conditions are necessary - the presence of obstacles and obstacles. Will manifests itself when difficulties appear on the way to the goal. Situations requiring volitional regulation are diverse: overcoming obstacles, focusing action on the future, conflict of motives, conflict between the requirements of social norms and existing desires.

The main functions of the will are: the choice of motives and goals, the regulation of the impulse to action when there is insufficient or excessive motivation, the organization of mental processes into a system adequate to the activity performed by a person, the mobilization of physical and mental capabilities when overcoming obstacles in achieving set goals. Will can be described in terms of strength and weakness.

Psychological analysis of the volitional process is important when deciding the issue of sanity and legal capacity, in qualifying special conditions that are important for the consideration of criminal and civil cases, including the state of physiological affect, identifying a person’s ability to resist psychological coercion when involved in illegal activities, the ability of a crime victim resist.

Emotional processes are mental reactions to internal or external influence, expressed in a restructuring of the rhythm of activity of both the psyche itself and the entire organism. Emotions contain an assessment of a phenomenon, and its particular features are not highlighted; an emotional response arises to the event as a whole. Emotions perform a regulatory function - they rearrange the activities of the psyche and body to quickly respond to changing conditions. Activation of the nervous system and, above all, its autonomic department leads to numerous changes in the condition of internal organs and the body as a whole. The nature of these changes shows that emotional states cause either mobilization of the organs of action, energy resources and protective processes of the body, or (in favorable situations) relaxation. So, in case of danger, a person has a feeling of fear, the hormone adrenaline enters the blood, while the blood vessels of the brain narrow and the blood vessels of the body dilate, providing the muscles with a large amount of oxygen and nutrients. A state of fear prepares the body for decisive action in extreme conditions.

Along with the general preparation of the body for action, certain emotional states are accompanied by specific changes in the plasticity of movements, facial expressions, and sound reactions. In evolution, they also developed and consolidated as a means of notifying about the emotional state of an individual in intraspecific and interspecific communication. With the increasing role of communication in higher animals, expressive movements become a finely differentiated language with the help of which individuals exchange information both about their state and about what is happening in the environment. In humans, emotions retain their sign function - the warning function. It is thanks to emotions and the changes in appearance and behavior they cause that we can judge the internal, psychological state of an individual.

Emotions are always associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of some important needs for a person. A positive or negative sign of an emotion communicates the possibility of satisfying a need. Positive emotions - joy, pleasure, triumph - communicate the right way to achieve a goal, negative emotions - pain, anger, fear, disappointment - cause a desire to minimize the influence of objective conditions and are aimed at changing the program of action. Thus, emotions perform a regulatory function, communicating the correctness or incorrectness of the path to achieving goals.

Emotions perform a motivating function - emotional stress pushes to action. In attempts to resolve a tense situation, a person shows activity, charged with the potential of the emotional state.

When considering the interaction between emotions and personality development, two factors need to be taken into account. The first of them is the influence of heredity on the emotional makeup of the individual. Heredity plays an important role in the formation of emotionality, establishing the thresholds for experiencing a particular emotion. The second factor of interaction is individual experience and skills of self-control of the emotional sphere.

Emotional processes vary in their modality, or quality. Emotions of fear, anger, sadness, despair, joy, pleasure and others can form complex experiences, for example, the emotions of anger, disgust and contempt form a kind of emotional complex of hostility, which can develop into a feeling of hostility that underlies aggressive illegal behavior. Emotions can also develop into contradictory, ambivalent states - pain-pleasure, sympathy-disgust, fear-admiration.

Emotions have a certain power, which depends both on the objective circumstances that caused them, and on the individual characteristics of a person, his emotionality. Reaching a certain threshold level, they can go beyond the control of consciousness, having a strong impact on a person’s behavior, mood, thinking, often interfering with the performance of professional activities. An extreme form of loss of control over feelings is the development of affective states.

Emotion is a form of mental reflection of the surrounding world in the form of short-term human experiences, but, being extended in time, they turn into a new type of mental phenomena - emotional states. Emotional states are holistic, dynamic, relatively stable personal formations that largely determine the uniqueness of a person’s mental life at a certain stage of his life path. Some feelings and emotional states become leading and dominant in the personality structure and, because of this, can seriously influence the formation of character. The basic experiences of a person, the most frequently experienced emotions, can be fixed in character.

The pathological manifestation of emotions can take the form of emotional callousness, when emotions are experienced shallowly, superficially, or excessive emotiveness, i.e. immersion in emotion and the inability to control it. There are also disorders in which one gets stuck in a certain emotional state - these are so-called mania and depression.

Mastery of the language of emotions and feelings is a professionally important skill for a lawyer. On the one hand, it is expressed in the ability to recognize emotional manifestations, experiences of other people, to identify the simulated nature of the feelings and emotions demonstrated by them, on the other hand, this skill is manifested in the correct choice of the most expressive forms of response, in the lawyer’s demonstration of his emotional state, adequate to one or another different communicative situation.

A psychological assessment of the characteristics of the course of an individual’s emotional processes in legal practice is important for assessing a person’s ability to understand the nature of his actions and manage them, for assessing the psychological harm caused to the victim of illegal actions.

The most complete interpretation of sleep orange

Orange juice. The symbolic meaning of orange juice in dream books is pleasure and temptation. Quite often we...
The meaning of the Nautiz rune in love and relationships

We most often overcome all kinds of difficulties encountered along the path of life. Of course, for this we make...
Horoscope by year of birth for Pisces

This year your patron Neptune will be in your constellation and this is a good sign, because you will feel...
Horoscope for those born in the year of the Rooster

1993 who? 1993 is the year of which animal? — According to the Chinese horoscope, 1873, 1933, 1993 belonged to the years of the Black Water...
What is wave-particle duality?

Wave-particle duality of light means that light simultaneously has the properties of continuous electromagnetic...
Preparing for the exam: how to learn biology yourself at home from scratch Learning biology from scratch

The role of biology is enormous in our world. Although it is not a priority subject, most students and parents...

2024-01-16 01:24:50

The characteristic properties of lower amines and ammonia are

Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia containing an NH 2 amino group and an organic radical. In general...
2024-01-16 01:24:50

Unified State Exam in Social Studies: reviewing assignments with the teacher

How to answer questions in Part BThe second part of the social studies work consists of 7 tasks with a short answer....

2024-01-15 01:17:34

Act on damage, damage, scrap of inventory items

Form TORG-15 is drawn up in the case when during transportation, movement between and within the warehouse, when...
2024-01-14 01:13:32

Homemade cereal bars with persimmons

Nutritionists say that for good health and a slim figure, you must include snacks in your...

2024-01-14 01:13:32

Carrot salad for the winter: recipes

Delicious pickled carrots for the winter can be prepared in a variety of containers, it can be a wooden...
2024-01-14 01:13:32

Omelet with crab sticks Scrambled eggs with crab sticks and tomatoes

When I have a few minutes left to prepare breakfast, the simplest and fastest recipes are used....

2024-01-14 01:13:32

Dessert recipes for the New Year

An elegant table, a decorated Christmas tree, tangerine spirit spilled throughout all the rooms, soon the most magical holiday -...
2024-01-13 01:35:31

Strong conspiracies for money and wealth

Each of us has repeatedly faced financial difficulties and difficult periods in life when Fortune...

2024-01-13 01:35:31
How to get rid of a love spell

If you are new to magic, then it will be useful for you to get acquainted with the signs by which you can accurately...
2024-01-13 01:35:31
Dream Interpretation all the secrets of dreams are revealed All the secrets of dreams and dreams are revealed

SECRETS OF DREAMS Why does day follow night? What is life? What is death and what is sleep? These questions...
2024-01-13 01:35:31
Fortune telling with Lenormand cards for the future Fortune telling with Lenormand cards 4 cards

Main meaning: Whatever version of Madame Lenormand’s deck we take, we can definitely say that this is one...
2024-01-12 01:28:20
Procedure for filling out an income tax return

An example of a correct income tax return in 2017, download for free in excel the new current...
2024-01-12 01:28:20
Presentation Contribution to the study of the Taman Peninsula P

P. S. Pallas (1741 - 1811) - naturalist and traveler-encyclopedist, who glorified his name with large...
2024-01-12 01:28:20
How to choose a purchasing method?

Today, all issues related to the placement of government orders are regulated by the Law on Contract...
2024-01-17 01:13:45
The most complete interpretation of sleep orange

Orange juice. The symbolic meaning of orange juice in dream books is pleasure and temptation. Enough...

2024-01-17 01:13:45

The meaning of the Nautiz rune in love and relationships

We most often overcome all kinds of difficulties encountered along the path of life. Of course, for this we...
2024-01-17 01:13:45

Horoscope by year of birth for Pisces

This year your patron Neptune will be in your constellation and this is a good sign, because you will...

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Introduction

The structure of emotional processes differs significantly from the structure of cognitive ones. The class of emotions includes moods, feelings, affects, stress. They are included in all mental processes and human states.

Emotions are a special class of subjective psychological states that reflect, in the form of direct experiences, feelings of a person’s pleasant or unpleasant attitude towards the world and people, the process and results of his practical activities.

Chapter 1. Human psychological processes

There are several options for defining the concept of “perception”:

Perception - This is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena that arise from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.

Perception called the reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

Perception - This is a reflection in a person’s consciousness of objects and phenomena as a whole that directly affect his sense organs, and not of their individual properties, as happens with sensation.

Perception is not the sum of sensations received from this or that object, but a qualitatively new level of sensory cognition with its inherent abilities.

Perception - a form of holistic mental reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

In perception, objects of the surrounding world are reflected in a combination of various properties and parts. The interaction of the system of analyzers can arise due to the influence of a complex of stimuli from various analyzers: visual, auditory, motor, tactile.

The construction of an image of a perceived object is closely related to the method of examining it. During the learning process, with repeated perception of an object, the structure of actions with the object changes (due to immersion).

1.2 Attention

Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness on some object, phenomenon or activity. The direction of consciousness is the choice of an object, and concentration involves distraction from everything that is not related to this object.

Attention has some characteristics that manifest themselves to different degrees in different people. So, the properties:

2. Stability - greater resistance to distractions, thanks to which a person can be focused on some object or action for a long time.

3. Volume of attention - the number of objects perceived simultaneously.

4. Distribution - the ability to simultaneously monitor several objects or perform various actions.

5. Switching - consciously moving attention to a new object.

What causes involuntary attention? There are several reasons:

1. Relative strength of the stimulus.

2. Unexpectedness of the stimulus.

3. Moving objects. The French psychologist T. Ribot especially highlighted this factor; he believed that it is thanks to the targeted activation of movements that concentration and increased attention on the subject occur.

4. Novelty of the stimulus.

5. Contrasting objects or phenomena.

6. The internal state of a person.

The so-called voluntary attention has a different character. It arises because a person has a goal, an intention to perceive or do something. This type of attention is also called intentional. Voluntary attention has a volitional character.

1.3 Thinking

Thinking- indirect and generalized reflection of significant, natural relationships of reality. This is a generalized orientation in specific situations of reality.

1.4 Speech

In addition to the content conveyed through verbal meanings, speech also expresses our emotional attitude to what we say. This phenomenon is called the emotional-expressive side of speech and is due to the tone of the words that we use to pronounce the phrase being expressed.

Chapter 2. Psychological states of a person

2.1 H uvst va

Feelings are a person’s internal attitudes to what is happening in his life, what he knows or does, experienced in various forms.

2. 2 Affects

Affect completely captures the human psyche, as if fusing the main influencing stimulus with all adjacent ones and thereby forming a generalized affective complex that predetermines a single reaction to the situation as a whole, including accompanying associations and movements.

2 .3 Moods

Mood is influenced by very different reasons, for example, satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the entire course of life, in particular how relationships develop at work, in the family, at school, and how all sorts of contradictions that arise in a person’s life are resolved.

2 .4 Stress

A special form of experiencing feelings, close in its psychological characteristics to affect, but approaching moods in duration, is represented by stressful conditions or emotional stress.

In some people, under stress, activity continues to increase, there is an increase in overall tone and vitality, self-confidence, composure and determination.

For others, stress is accompanied by a decrease in activity efficiency, confusion, inability to focus attention and maintain it at the required level of concentration; fussiness, speech incontinence, aggression, and signs of psychological deafness in relation to others appear.

To relieve the state of tension, a thorough analysis of all components of the stressful situation is necessary, shifting attention to external circumstances, accepting the situation as an already accomplished fact.

Conclusion

Attention does not represent an independent mental process, since it cannot manifest itself outside of other processes. We listen carefully or inattentively, look, think, do. Thus, attention is only a property of various mental processes.

A person not only cognizes reality in the processes of perception, memory, imagination and thinking, but at the same time relates in one way or another to certain facts of life, experiences certain feelings in relation to them.

Bibliography

1. Abramova G.S. Introduction to practical psychodiagnostics. - Brest, 1993.

2. Ananyev B.G. On the problems of modern human science. M.: Nauka, 1977. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. M., 1946.

3. Witslak G. Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics / Psychodiagnostics: theory and practice - ed. N.F. Talyzina - M., 1986.

4. Gamezo M.V. Psychology course. Moscow, Enlightenment, -- 1967

5. Godfroi J. What is psychology. T.I. M.: Mir, 1992

6. Danilova N.N., Krylova A.L. Physiology of higher nervous activity. M.: MSU, 1989.

7. Izard K.E. Human emotions. M.: 1980.

8. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.

9. Milner P. Physiological psychology. M.: Mir, 1973.

10. Nemov R. S. Psychology. Book 1. General Basics psychology. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 1997.

11. General psychodiagnostics - ed. A.A. Bodaleva, V.V. Stolina - M., 1987.

12. Psychodiagnostics: theory and practice - ed. N.F. Talyzina - M., 1986.

13. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology, in 2 volumes. Moscow, Pedagogy, -1985, vol. 2

14. Simonov P.V. Emotional brain. M.: Nauka, 1981.

15. Khomskaya E.D., Bashova N.Ya. Brain and emotions. M., 1992.

16. Reader on general psychology: Psychology of thinking - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1981.

17. Khrizman T.P. Eremeeva V.P., Loskutova T.D. Emotions, speech and human brain activity. M.: Pedagogy, 1991.

18. Experimental psychology/Ed. P. Fressa and J. Piaget. Vol. 1--2. M.: Progress, 1966.

Similar documents

Introduction to General Psychology

Methods of general psychology

Observation

Conversation

Experiment

Subject and object of general psychology

Feel

Perception

Attention

Representation

Memory

Imagination

Thinking