What is a drug. Medicine

Medications that reduce pain. Many of them have anti-inflammatory properties (see ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS) and reduce fever (see ANTIPYRETICS). There are three main groups. First, simple analgesics, which usually contain aspirin or paracetamol, are used for mild pain. Second: anti-inflammatory drugs used for muscle pain, arthritis. Third: narcotic analgesics, usually chemically related to morphine, used for severe pain.

Possible side effects: nausea, constipation, dizziness, dependence and development of drug resistance (only when using narcotic analgesics). For side effects of other groups, see ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS and ANTIPYRETICS.

Doses for children: Liquid paracetamol is one of the most harmless over-the-counter analgesics; it is recommended for pain and feverish symptoms in children. Another analgesic, aspirin, often used by adults, is no longer considered completely safe for children with certain viral infections. Its use can cause the development of Reye's syndrome - a rare and serious illness, affecting the brain and liver. For severe pain, for example after surgery, narcotic analgesics (in particular, codeine) may be prescribed. Analgesics can cause drowsiness in a child, as well as transient constipation, nausea, and dizziness.

Substances (often derived from micro-organisms such as fungi or bacteria) that inhibit or kill bacteria in the body. Some of the newer antibiotics are synthetic derivatives of naturally occurring substances. Any type of antibiotic is only effective against certain strains of bacteria, although there are broad-spectrum antibiotics that work against a large number of bacterial infections. Sometimes microbes become resistant to a particular antibiotic. In such cases, the choice of drug should be based on laboratory data. Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses.

Possible side effects: nausea, vomiting, loose stools. Some people may be allergic to certain antibiotics. Its manifestations: rash, fever, joint pain, swelling, shortness of wheezing. When treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics, secondary fungal infections(thrush), such as the mouth or vagina.

Doses for children: The most commonly recommended antibiotics for children are ampicillin, amoxicillin, erythromycin, and penicillin. When prescribing antibiotics by a doctor, it is always necessary to complete the recommended course of treatment. Stopping treatment prematurely can lead to relapse and promote the emergence of resistant bacterial species. Antibiotics can have side effects, and some children experience hypersensitivity to penicillin and related antibiotics. Side effects: rash, nausea, vomiting, loose stools, shortness of breath. If you experience any adverse reactions to antibiotics, you should consult a doctor.

Warning: Complete the prescribed course of antibiotics. Otherwise, even after the symptoms disappear, a relapse of the infection may occur, which will be much more difficult to fight (due to the development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics).

Medications that prevent allergic reactions that occur when a substance called histamine is released in the body. These reactions may include a runny nose and watery eyes (allergic rhinitis), itching, and hives. Antihistamines are taken orally or in the form of ointments or aerosols applied to the skin at the site of the rash. They also affect the organs of balance located in the middle ear, and therefore are often used to prevent seasickness. The drugs have a calming effect, and they can be used to treat insomnia (on the advice of a doctor). They are also used as a means of drug preparation before surgery: they create a relaxed drowsy state in the patient before entering the operating room. Other antihistamines that affect secretion gastric juice are used to treat peptic ulcers.

Possible side effects: drowsiness, dry mouth, "veil" before the eyes.

Doses for children: In children, trimepraeine tartrate and promethazine hydrochloride are most commonly recommended. The main side effect is drowsiness, but in some children, on the contrary, unusual arousal occurs.

Warning: While taking antihistamines, it is recommended not to drive a car and avoid drinking alcoholic beverages.

Drugs to combat depression are divided into two main groups: tricyclics and their derivatives, as well as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). Because of the side effects, which can be quite serious, MAO inhibitors are prescribed only for those types of severe depression where tricyclic drugs are ineffective.

Possible side effects: drowsiness, dry mouth, "veil" before the eyes, constipation, difficulty urinating, fainting, sweating, trembling, rash, palpitations, headache.

Doses for children: IN individual cases these drugs may be given to older children with depression. In addition, some doctors recommend antidepressants such as amitriptyline for bedwetting in children over 6 years of age (if other therapies fail). The feasibility of such treatment remains controversial. Side effects: deviations in behavior, disturbances in the frequency and rhythm of heart contractions.

Warning: In combination with some drugs and foods, MAO inhibitors have the opposite effect, which can lead to a significant increase in blood pressure. Check with your doctor, he may recommend that you carry a warning card with you. When treating with antidepressants of both groups, alcohol intake should be limited. Ask your doctor if you can drive or use machines while taking antidepressants.

Drugs that prevent and/or dissolve blood clots(thrombi).

Possible side effects: increased tendency to bleeding from the nose, gums, as well as the formation subcutaneous hematomas(for injuries). There may be blood in the urine and stool.

Warning: Anticoagulants work more intensively in combination with some other drugs, including aspirin. Before taking any other medicines, check with your doctor to be sure that the effectiveness of anticoagulants will not be impaired. If you regularly take anticoagulants, you should carry a warning card with you.

Beta-adrenergic blocking agents (abbreviated as beta-blockers) reduce the heart's need for oxygen by lowering the heart rate. They are used both in the form of tablets and in the form of injections as ANTIHYPERTENSIVE and ANTIARRHYTHMIC MEDICINES, in the treatment of angina pectoris, as well as to reduce palpitations and tremors in patients in a state of excitation.

Possible side effects: nausea, insomnia, physical fatigue, loose stools.

Warning: An overdose may cause drowsiness and fainting. Stop therapy should be gradual. Beta blockers are contraindicated in bronchial asthma and heart failure.

Drugs that expand the lumen of the bronchi, narrowed as a result of muscle spasm. Bronchial dilators, which make breathing easier in asthma-like conditions, are often used as aerosols, but are also available in tablet, liquid, and suppository form. IN emergency cases, for example when severe attack bronchial asthma, drugs are administered intramuscularly or intravenously. The duration of action is usually 3-5 hours.

Possible side effects: palpitations, tremor, headache, dizziness.

Doses for children: In children, bronchial constriction usually occurs with asthma or respiratory infections(bronchitis and bronchiolitis). There are two groups of drugs for primary treatment bronchial asthma. The first includes drugs used to treat an acute attack (bronchodilators): terbutaline and theophyllines, used both inside and in the form of injections. The second group includes drugs whose action is aimed at preventing an attack (sodium chromoglycate). In the treatment of acute attacks, they are ineffective. CORTICOSTEROIDS (see ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS) are used to treat asthma resistant to the above medications. Children over 3 years of age can be taught how to use inhalers. Side effects of anti-asthma drugs include increased heart rate, trembling, and irritability.

Warning: Due to the possible effect on the heart, the prescribed doses should not be exceeded. If the recommended doses do not improve, emergency medical attention is needed.

Complex chemical compounds necessary for the body in minimal quantities. Traditionally often prescribed to infants and young children, especially when artificial feeding and prematurity. Apparently, healthy children and well-nourished adults do not need vitamins. Small doses of vitamin supplements are harmless, but exceeding the recommended daily doses is fraught with danger.

Medications that lower blood glucose levels. For treatment diabetes, which cannot be compensated only by dietary nutrition and does not require the introduction of insulin, hypoglycemic drugs can be used orally.

Possible side effects: loss of appetite, nausea, indigestion, numbness and tingling in the skin, fever, rash.

Warning: At very low glucose levels, weakness, dizziness, pallor, sweating, increased salivation, palpitations, irritability, and trembling can be observed. If these symptoms appear a few hours after eating, this may indicate that the dose is too high. Report symptoms to your doctor.

Chemicals produced by the endocrine glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries/testes, pancreas, and parathyroids). In the absence of hormone release (which may be due to a number of diseases), they can be replaced with natural or synthetic hormones. See SEX HORMONES

Possible side effects: there may be an increase in secondary sexual characteristics. So, in men, when taking estrogens, there is an increase in the mammary glands, and androgens in women can lead to increased hair growth on the body and a coarsening of the voice. Estrogens affect blood clotting and therefore can cause angina, stroke, or thrombosis of the vessels of the legs.

Doses for children: In some cases, hormonal preparations are prescribed for children with diseases of the endocrine glands to prevent a deficiency of a hormone produced in the body. The most common is the lack thyroid-stimulating hormone, growth hormone and insulin (diabetes). If a child needs maintenance therapy with any of these hormones, it is advisable to check the correct dosage with repeated blood tests.

Drugs that prevent or impair the body's normal response to disease or foreign tissue. They are used to treat autoimmune diseases (in which the body's defenses are violated and attack its own tissues). They are also used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs.

Possible side effects: susceptibility to infections (especially pulmonary, fungal diseases of the oral cavity and skin, viral diseases). Some immunosuppressants cause nausea, vomiting, and damage to the bone marrow, leading to anemia.

For treatment and/or prevention skin diseases(for example, infections or irritations) there are a large number of creams, ointments, lotions. They usually consist of a base to which various active ingredients are added. The following are widely used: antiseptic ointments (containing preparations such as cetrimide) - to prevent suppuration; softening protective ointments, for example containing zinc and castor oil, for the prevention and treatment of diaper rash, ointments with ANTIBIOTICS for the treatment skin infections, such as impetigo; CORTICOSTEROID ointments; ANTIFUNG ointments; acne remedies; local anesthetics and itch-relieving ointments containing calamine; ANTIHISTAMINS or local anesthetics such as benzocaine.

Doses for children: When choosing an ointment for the treatment of skin diseases in a child, be sure to consult a doctor.

A group of anti-inflammatory drugs (see ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS), similar in composition to hormones produced by the adrenal glands, which provide the body's response to stress. Corticosteroids can be taken by mouth, injected, applied as an ointment to the skin, or used by inhalation. Inhaled corticosteroids (eg, beclomethasone) may be recommended when other bronchodilators have failed. With such therapy for short periods of time, side effects are negligible. Corticosteroids such as prednisolone and hydrocortisone are taken orally or by injection for acute conditions (shock, severe allergic reactions, severe asthma). Corticosteroids are used for long-term therapy of a number of inflammatory diseases. They do not cure, but, significantly weakening the phenomena of inflammation, sometimes help the body cope with the disease. Corticosteroids are used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, as well as to compensate for the deficiency of the body's own hormones.

Possible side effects: weight gain, redness of the face, irritation of the gastric mucosa, mental disorders, excessive hair growth.

Doses for children: When prescribing corticosteroids to children, careful monitoring is necessary, since the drugs have side effects. These include fluid retention with the formation of excess weight, moon-shaped face, growth retardation.

Hormones responsible for the formation of secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle. There are two main types hormonal drugs: estrogens and progestogens. Estrogens are used to treat breast cancer or prostate; progestogens are used to treat endometriosis. Sex hormones can be used in the form of tablets, injections, and also implanted into muscles.

Possible side effects: nausea, weight gain, headache, depression, breast enlargement and tenderness, rashes and changes in skin pigmentation, changes in sexual behavior, blood clotting disorders leading to heart disease.

Warning: Estrogens are not recommended for use in circulatory and hepatic disorders; in persons with jaundice; in diabetes, epilepsy, kidney and heart disease, estrogen therapy should be carefully monitored. Treatment with progestogens is contraindicated in persons with liver disease, and in patients with asthma, epilepsy, kidney and heart disease should be carefully monitored.

Hormones (the most powerful of them is testosterone) responsible for the development of secondary male sexual characteristics. In very small quantities are produced in women. As medicines, male sex hormones are used to compensate for hormonal deficiency with a decrease in pituitary function or testicular disease. They can also be used to treat breast cancer in women, but their synthetic ones are more preferable: anabolic steroids with less pronounced side effects, as well as specific antiestrogen. Anabolic steroids increase lean body mass, which has led to their illegal use in competitive sports in both women and men. Male sex hormones are used in the form of tablets, injections or implanted into the muscles.

Possible side effects: swelling, weight gain, weakness, loss of appetite, drowsiness, nausea. Large doses in women, it can lead to the cessation of menstruation, an increase in the size of the clitoris, a coarsening of the voice, a decrease in the mammary glands, hair growth or male pattern baldness.

Although there is no cure for a cold, aspirin or paracetamol can be alleviated with plenty of fluids. most effective for treatment colds preparations containing both of these compounds are considered. To reduce the common cold and facilitate nasal breathing, there are a large number of drugs containing ANTIHISTAMINS and VASCULAR SUBSTANCES. However, these drugs are not effective when taken by mouth; only with very high dose they may have some effect that is negligible compared to the side effects.

Possible side effects: drowsiness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, sweating, thirst, palpitations, difficulty urinating, weakness, trembling, restlessness, insomnia.

Warning: Remedies for the treatment of colds are contraindicated in patients with angina pectoris, hypertension, diabetes, thyroid disease, and those taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors. It is not recommended to drive a car and work with potentially dangerous mechanisms after taking drugs containing antihistamines.

Drugs to fight viral infections. Effective drug treatment for most viral infections does not exist (in particular, with influenza and respiratory infections). However, with severe colds caused by a virus herpes simplex, you can lubricate the skin with idoxuridine ointment immediately after the onset of symptoms. The same ointment is used to treat shingles. Another antiviral drug, acicolvir, is taken orally or as an injection, as well as an ointment for the treatment of the most severe types of herpes infection.

Possible side effects: antiviral drugs used to treat colds, herpetic lesion genitals and herpes zoster, can cause burning sensations, rashes and sometimes loss of skin sensation.

Means used for treatment inflammatory process, which is manifested by redness, temperature, swelling, pain, increased blood flow and is observed with infections and many chronic non-communicable diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, gout). Three main groups of drugs are used as anti-inflammatory drugs: ANALGESICS (eg, aspirin), CORTICOSTEROIDS, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (eg, indomethacin, used especially for diseases of the muscles and joints). Corticosteroids can be applied topically as an ointment or eye drops in diseases of the skin or eyes, but not always indicated in chronic rheumatic diseases, except in special cases.

Possible side effects: rash, stomach irritation with occasional bleeding, hearing loss, difficulty breathing.

Doses for children: For the treatment of children, two main groups of drugs are used: corticosteroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Commonly used drugs in the second group include aspirin (although it is now used with caution in children - see ANALGESICS), ibuprofen, and mefenamic acid. These drugs can cause transient constipation and quite often minor indigestion.

Means for the treatment of fungal diseases, such as ringworm, athlete's foot, thrush and fungal diaper rash. They are applied either directly to the skin or taken orally for a long time. The main antifungal drug is griseofulvin. For direct action on the skin, clotrimazole and miconazole are used.

Possible side effects: when taking antifungal drugs by mouth, nausea, vomiting, loose stools and / or headaches may occur. When applied topically, irritation sometimes occurs.

Drugs that suppress nausea and vomiting. Most of them also reduce dizziness. The main groups of medicines in this category include a number of ANTIHISTAMINS (especially for nausea caused by seasick and diseases of the ears), antispasmodics and tranquilizers. Antiemetics can make diagnosis difficult, so they are usually not given unless the cause of the vomiting is clear or if the vomiting lasts less than a day (as in gastroenteritis). During pregnancy, antiemetic drugs are prescribed only in severe cases.

Possible side effects: depend on the group of drugs used. Long term treatment some tranquilizers can lead to involuntary contractions of the facial muscles. Antiemetic drugs are only used for a few days.

Warning: Many antiemetics cause drowsiness, so alcohol should be avoided. Ask your doctor if you can drive a car or work with dangerous machinery in these cases.

Drugs used to prevent and treat epileptic seizures. Usually taken at least twice a day. To reduce side effects, it is necessary to carefully select an individual dose. To monitor the concentration of drugs in the blood, blood or saliva is examined. Drugs are usually taken for a long time, until 2-4 years pass without seizures.

Possible side effects: drowsiness, rash, dizziness, headache, nausea, swollen gums.

Doses for children: The most commonly used drugs for the treatment of children with grand mal seizures are phenytoin, sodium valproate, and carbamazepine. Side effects include drowsiness, gastrointestinal disturbances, rashes, increased hair growth, swollen lymph glands, changes in blood composition, and abnormal liver function. Less commonly, children are prescribed phenobarbital, disruptive behavior. For the treatment of small seizures, during which the child's gaze is fixed in space and it seems that he does not see or hear anything, sodium valproate and ethosuximide are used.

Warning: Alcohol, like ANTIHISTAMINS, increases the chance and severity of side effects and should therefore be avoided. If you need to work with potentially dangerous mechanisms, you should consult a doctor.

Specially formulated powders and solutions containing glucose and the necessary mineral salts in certain quantities. When boiled water is added, these remedies can be used to prevent and treat dehydration due to diarrhea or vomiting. Rehydration powders and solutions are also used for home treatment of infants and older children. Similar solutions can be administered intravenously in a hospital setting.

Possible side effects: a feeling of "hangover", dizziness, dry mouth and (especially in the elderly) clumsiness and confusion.

Doses for children: Sleeping pills for adults is not used to treat insomnia in children. A child who constantly wakes up at night can be given ANTIHISTAMINS, which cause drowsiness. Older children in rare cases you can give sedatives to ensure sleep during periods of psychological stress.

Warning: Sleeping pills are addictive, so they should be taken for a short time and canceled gradually. After discontinuation of the drug for several weeks, there may be intermittent sleep that does not bring a sense of rest, accompanied by vivid dreams. Until the effects of sleeping pills completely disappear, you should not drive a car, work with dangerous machinery, or drink alcohol.

Possible side effects: dry mouth, palpitations, difficulty urinating, constipation, "veil" before the eyes.

Used to treat diarrhea. There are two main groups: adsorbing excess water and toxins in the intestines (contain kaolin, bismuth compounds, chalk or coal) and inhibiting intestinal contractions, which contributes to the reduction of stool. The second group includes codeine, mixtures of opium.

Possible side effects: constipation.

Warning: Remedies for diarrhea relieve symptoms but do not treat the underlying cause. They can prolong the course of a toxic or infectious disease accompanied by diarrhea. You should not take these medicines for more than a day without seeking medical attention. Drink plenty of fluids when treating diarrhea (see also REHYDRATING MEDICINES).

Sometimes called sedative anxiolytics, or minor tranquilizers. Reduce the feeling of anxiety, cause muscle relaxation. They can be used as sleeping pills and to alleviate premenstrual mood changes.

Possible side effects: drowsiness, dizziness, confusion, unsteadiness, loss of coordination.

Doses for children: These drugs are rarely used in children. For convulsions as a remedy emergency care use diazepam intravenously. More modern drugs may sometimes be given to older children suffering from psychological distress. Side effects: confusion, drowsiness. These drugs may be habit-forming.

Warning: These drugs should not be used if you intend to drive or operate potentially dangerous machinery. Sedatives often increase the effects of alcohol. You can get used to them, so they should not be used for a long time.

Agents that damage or destroy proliferating cells. Used for treatment cancer, and also as IMMUNODEPRESSANTS. Produced in the form of tablets and liquid for intramuscular and intravenous injections. Some drugs with different types of action can be used in combination.

Possible side effects: nausea, vomiting, hair loss.

Doses for children: Cytotoxic drugs are used to treat certain childhood cancers, particularly leukemia. Being potent drugs, they require the mandatory control of specialists who calculate the maximum effective dose that gives a minimum of side effects.

Warning: Due to the cytotoxic effect on both cancerous and healthy cells, these drugs have dangerous side effects: for example, they can destroy Bone marrow and affect blood cell production, causing anemia, increased susceptibility to infection, and bleeding. During treatment with cytotoxic agents, regular blood tests should be done.

A medicinal substance is a chemical compound of natural or synthetic origin, which is the main active principle that determines medicinal properties. Included in the medicinal product.

Medicinal raw materials are a source of obtaining a medicinal substance. The most common and long-known medicinal raw materials include many plants, both wild and cultivated by specialized farms. The second source medicinal raw materials- organs and tissues of various animals, waste products of fungi and bacteria, from which hormones, enzymes, antibiotics and other biologically active substances are obtained. Plays an important role in this Genetic Engineering allowing to obtain previously unknown substances. The third source is some natural and synthetic derivatives. After appropriate processing of medicinal raw materials, an active medicinal substance is obtained.

Depending on the method of processing medicinal raw materials, galenic and novogalenic preparations are obtained.

Galenic preparations are preparations of complex chemical composition obtained from parts of plants or animal tissues. They contain active active compounds in combination with ballast substances. Herbal preparations include infusions, decoctions, tinctures, extracts, syrups, etc.

Novogalenic preparations are water-alcohol extracts from herbal medicinal raw materials, high degree cleaning with the removal of all ballast substances. Due to this purification, the preparations can be administered parenterally.

Medicine(medicine) is “any substance or product used or intended to be used to modify or investigate physiological systems or pathological conditions for the benefit of the recipient” (definition by the WHO scientific group), may contain other substances that ensure its stable form. The terms "drug" and "drug" are used interchangeably. The medicine can have a single-component or complex composition with preventive and therapeutic efficacy. In the Russian Federation, medicines are considered drugs that are approved for use by the Ministry of Health in in due course.

A drug is a drug in a ready-to-use form. This is a dosed medicinal product in an adequate dosage form for individual use and optimal design with an annotation about its properties and use.

Dosage form - the physical state of the drug, convenient for use (see below).

For all the above provisions, standards are being developed, approved government agencies(Pharmacological Committee, Pharmacopoeia Committee).

All drugs are divided into three groups, taking into account their possible toxic effects on the human body if used incorrectly. Lists of these drugs are presented in the State Pharmacopoeia. List A (Venena - poisons) includes medicines, the appointment, use, dosing and storage of which, due to their high toxicity, must be done with extreme caution. This list also includes drugs that cause addiction. List B (heroica - potent) includes medicines, the appointment, use, dosage and storage of which must be carried out with caution in connection with possible complications when used without medical supervision. The third group is medicines dispensed from pharmacies without prescriptions.

A prescription is a written instruction from a doctor to a pharmacist about the release or preparation of medicines for a patient with instructions for their use. A prescription is a legal document that only a doctor can write. Prescription - a doctor's request to a pharmacist about dispensing medicines to a patient, indicating the dosage form, dose and method of application. A prescription is a medical, legal and monetary document in the case of free or reduced-price medicines. Prescriptions are written and medicines dispensed according to them are carried out in accordance with the "Rules for Prescriptions", "Rules for the Storage and Dispensing of Poisonous and Poisonous Substances" and other official documents, which are determined by orders of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation. Medicines prepared in pharmacies or pharmaceutical companies according to the prescription available in the Pharmacopoeia, they are called official, and those prepared according to the doctor's prescriptions are called manestral.

Funds from the list are prescribed on special forms narcotic substances(capable of causing drug addiction- drug addiction). Narcotic analgesics, psychostimulants (amphetamine, dexamphetamine and similar compounds). Narcotic antitussives (codeine, codeine phosphate, ethylmorphine hydrochloride). Hypnotics (noxiron, etaminal-sodium, etc.) Anorexigenic drugs (fepranone, depimon, etc.) Cocaine hydrochloride, sombrevin.

A prescription for a narcotic drug must be written in the handwriting of the doctor who signed it, and certified with a personal seal and signature. In addition, the prescription is signed by the chief physician of the medical institution or his deputy and certified by a round seal. This order of prescription is defined for drugs with anabolic activity (anabolic steroids) and intoxicating action - phenobarbital, cyclodol, ephedrine hydrochloride, clonidine (eye drops, ampoules).

Antipsychotics, tranquilizers, antidepressants, preparations containing ethyl alcohol, etc. are prescribed on other forms of prescription forms.

Medicines are dispensed without a prescription, in the order of manual sale: analgin with amidopyrine 0.25 each (tab.), Avisan, dekamevit, validol, valerian preparations, Zelenin drops, Vishnevsky ointment, nitroglycerin, etc. It is prohibited to write prescriptions for ether for anesthesia to outpatients , chloroethyl, fentanyl, etc.

Recipes consisting of one medicinal substance are called simple, those of two or more substances are called complex. IN complex recipes the following procedure for recording medicines is applied: 1) the main medicine; 2) aids(enhancing or weakening the effect of the main drug), substances that improve the taste or smell of the drug or reduce its irritating properties (corrective); 3) formative substances (preparations that give the drug a certain consistency).

Doses of drugs. For right action drugs must be used in an adequate dose. A dose is the amount of a drug that is injected into the body and has a certain effect on it. The strength of the drug is determined by the dose and the order of its administration.

Dose - the amount of a medicinal substance introduced into the body, and is expressed in mass or volume units of the decimal system and is indicated by Arabic numerals. The number of whole grams is separated by a comma. Per unit of weight in the recipe, 1 g is taken - 1.0; per unit volume - 1 ml. When taking medications, it is important to consider that in 1 tbsp. l. contains 15 g of water, 1 tsp. - 5 g; in 1 g of water - 20 drops; in 1 g of alcohol - 47-65 drops.

According to the mode of action, the dose can be minimal, therapeutic, toxic and lethal.

The minimum effective (threshold) dose is the minimum possible amount of a drug that can have a therapeutic effect.

The therapeutic dose is the amount of the drug that exceeds the minimum effective dose, which gives the optimal therapeutic effect and does not have a negative effect on the human body. Most often in medical practice the average therapeutic dose is used, which in most cases gives the optimal therapeutic effect without pathological effects.

The toxic dose is the smallest amount of drugs that can cause a toxic effect on the body. For poisonous and potent substances indicate the maximum single and daily doses for adults and children in accordance with the age of the patient. In the event of an overdose of substances or when replacing one drug with another, poisoning may occur.

The minimum lethal (lethal) dose is the amount of a drug substance that can lead to death.

According to the number of applications per day, the dose can be single (single) and daily.

There are also:

fixed doses. Many drugs have the desired clinical effect in doses below the toxic (diuretic, analgesics, oral contraceptives, antibacterial agents, etc.), and individual variability is not significant.

Varying doses, difficult to correct. Adequate dose selection is difficult, since the final therapeutic result is difficult to quantify, for example, a state of depression or anxiety, or the effect develops slowly, for example, with thyrotoxicosis or epilepsy, or varies depending on pathological process(when treated with corticosteroids).

Varying doses, easily correctable. Vital important features under the influence of drugs can change significantly and quickly, for example, blood pressure and blood sugar levels. Dose adjustments can be made quite accurately, as the effect of the drug can be quantified. With corticosteroid replacement therapy, individual doses are also selected.

The maximum tolerated dose. Medicines that do not allow to obtain an ideal therapeutic effect due to adverse reactions(anticancer, antibacterial), are used in the maximum tolerated doses, i.e. they are increased until the appearance of adverse reactions, and then slightly reduced.

Minimum tolerated dose. This dosing principle is used less frequently, usually with long-term administration of corticosteroids in inflammatory and immunological diseases, for example, in bronchial asthma, rheumatoid arthritis. The dose that causes symptomatic improvement of the condition may be so high that severe adverse reactions are unavoidable. The patient receives a dose that relieves his condition and is safe. This is a difficult task.

The initial dose provides the desired effect and does not cause toxic reactions. Often the same as the maintenance dose, which ensures the stability of the therapeutic effect.

Medicines are also created by chemical synthesis without the use of biological technologies, using the activity of microorganisms. Mankind has been using drugs since time immemorial, but there are periods in the history of pharmacotherapy (horses of the 19th - early 20th centuries) when the positive role of drugs was denied, and this was considered a sign of an advanced way of thinking. The denial of pharmacotherapy was expressed in the punning saying: "Treat with the mind, not with the medicine."

Medicinal preparations - dosed medicinal products, ready for use. They are divided into poisonous, potent and general purpose. When taking, it is important to accurately observe the dose.

Single dose - the amount of the drug, calculated at one time. If the drug is dispensed by prescription, then the doctor determines the single dose. When self-administering drugs, it is important to correctly determine their dose (for example, if you need to take 500 mg of the drug, and the tablet contains 1000 mg, then you need to take 1/2 tablet).

Higher single dose- the maximum amount of the drug, calculated per dose.

Higher daily dose- the maximum amount of the drug that can be taken per day.

Medicine is usually called tablets, potions, powders, etc. However, these are only dosage forms of certain therapeutic agents.

Each medicinal product contains active substance, which determines its medicinal properties.

An ordinary tablet may consist entirely of the active substance, but more often it is a mixture of it with excipients, non-drug substances. The fact is that medicinal doses of one or another substance is often milligrams and even fractions of a milligram, and consequently, a tablet consisting entirely of such a substance would have microscopic dimensions. Substances-fillers, in addition, can slow down or, conversely, accelerate the action of the drug. Therefore, even drugs with the same active substance sometimes cause different effects. This should be remembered, and take the remedy only under the supervision of a doctor.

To date, more than 7 thousand drugs have been developed in the world, and most of them appeared in the last 25 years.

Before starting treatment, consult your doctor.

Medicines

Medicinal products are substances or mixtures of substances used for the prevention, diagnosis, treatment of diseases, as well as for the regulation of other conditions (eg prevention of pregnancy, etc.). Medicines are obtained from a wide variety of substances by synthesis, through various chemical reactions, extraction, using biotechnology, and other methods (including from blood, blood plasma, as well as organs, tissues of humans or animals, plants, minerals).

Thus, medicinal products include substances of plant, animal or synthetic origin that have pharmacological activity and are intended for production and manufacture. dosage forms.

Classification of medicines

Prescription and non-prescription medicines

In world practice, there is the concept of "over-the-counter" and "prescription" medicines. The latter suggest a greater potential danger of use without medical advice. Goes constant struggle between the "pharmaceutical" and "medical" lobbies (respectively, for the expansion of the 1st or 2nd group of drugs and the corresponding business).

State regulation is designed to take into account the interests of the population (the dilemma of "availability" and / or "safety" of medicines), without biasing towards the interests of the pharmaceutical or medical business.

Homeopathic medicines

In a number of countries, these drugs are regulated differently - either as a category "Medications", or as "Foods and supplements", or as "products alternative medicine". At present, there is no consensus on this matter. international organizations agreed with national health authorities.

In the Russian Federation, homeopathic medicines are subject to the same legislative regulation as conventional medicines.

Legislative regulation

From the point of view of Russian legislation, at the moment (2006), a drug is a drug entered in the state register of medicines.

The production of permitted medicines must comply with the international requirements of the GMP standard, however, the introduction of this requirement in the territory of a number of CIS countries is carried out in stages, as the equipment of the main operating enterprises is updated.

The sale of medicines (unlike dietary supplements) is carried out only by specialized stores (pharmacies, pharmacy kiosks) that have the appropriate license.

The circulation of medicines is regulated by law and by-laws, including the regular updating of the list of Vital and Essential Medicines (VED), the List drugs and etc.

Economic consequences of legislative regulation

VAT on the sale of medicines (Russia, 2006) corresponds to 10% (unlike dietary supplements - 18%).

In Ukraine, there is a practice of returning excise duty for the use of alcohol in the manufacture of medicines - only after they are sold.

Bodies of state control over the quality of medicines

The quality of medicines in Russia is controlled by federal Service for Supervision in Healthcare and Social Development (Roszdravnadzor), subordinate to the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation.

Centers for quality control of medicines operate in most large cities of Russia. Their main task is to check the organizations selling medicines (compliance with numerous norms for the storage and sale of medicines), as well as selective (and in some regions even total) control of medicines. Based on the data from the regional centers, Roszdravnadzor will make decisions on the rejection of a particular drug.

This is how it should ideally be. In practice, things look a little different.

First, the vast majority of drug quality control centers are more than poorly equipped, and it is difficult to carry out chemical analysis they are not able to use a modern medicine. An even more difficult situation arises with microbiological research, which are either not produced at all or are produced in a very reduced volume. As a result, all, so to speak, studies are often limited to assessing the appearance of the drug (is there any unacceptable sediment, are the tablets cracked, are the packaging correctly designed, the label is crooked, etc.).

Secondly, according to the legislation in force in Russia, it is unacceptable to require additional analysis from the seller if the medicinal product already has a valid certificate (declaration) of conformity. Thus, all additional studies should be carried out at the expense of the Centers for Quality Control of Medicines. In fact, this translates into additional costs for the seller.

Third, drug quality control centers should produce selective drug control. In many regions of Russia (for example, Stavropol, the Tver region, Tatarstan), the repeated check is of a total nature. In general, this is illegal, and due to the lack of equipment in laboratories, it is simply meaningless, which leads to a significant difficulty in selling not only falsified and low-quality drugs, but also drugs in general.

As a result of the above, it can be said that the majority regional centers quality control of medicines today do not fulfill their tasks, only creating the ground for bribes and unfair competition.

Rejected and counterfeit medicines are subject to withdrawal from the pharmacy network, information about them is available on the following websites:

Original medicines and generics

An original drug is a drug that is first released by the developer. As a rule, the development of a new drug is a very expensive and time-consuming process. Of the many known compounds, as well as newly synthesized ones, by enumeration, on the basis of databases on their properties and computer modeling of the proposed biological activity, substances with the maximum target activity are identified and synthesized. After animal experiments, in the case positive result, limited clinical trials are being conducted on groups of volunteers. If the effectiveness is confirmed, and side effects insignificant - the drug goes into production, and based on the results of additional tests, the possible features actions, undesirable effects are revealed.

At the same time, the manufacturer patents this new drug. All other firms can produce synonyms (so-called generics), but by their own technology, if they prove the bioequivalence of drugs. Of course, they cannot use the brand name for this drug, but only the INN, or some new patented by them. Despite the new name, in their effect, such drugs can be similar, or very close.

Are original drugs and generics completely equivalent? From the point of view of chemistry, the active substance is the same. But the production technology is different, it is possible varying degrees cleaning. There are other factors as well. For example, it is known that for a long time different companies could not achieve the same effectiveness of acetylsalicylic acid (generic) as that of Bayer AG, the manufacturer of the original drug "aspirin". It turned out that the matter was not only in the purity of the raw materials, but also in a special method of crystallization, which resulted in special, smaller crystals of acetylsalicylic acid. There can be many such nuances. The opposite result is also possible, when the generic is more successful than the original medicine.

In modern preparations, only one of the isomers (enantiomers) may be biologically active, the other may be weakly active, inactive, or even harmful (see Bioavailability).

Illegal actions in the production and circulation of medicines

Counterfeit drugs, counterfeit drugs

The pharmaceutical business is considered the third most profitable, after the arms and drugs trade. This attracts unscrupulous entrepreneurs to him.

In Russia, until 1991, the problem of falsification of medicines was practically absent.

After the collapse of the USSR, the resulting decrease in the production of its own drugs and a sharp increase in imports, the problem became urgent. Approximately one tenth of all medicines sold on the world market are counterfeit or counterfeit.

• 1998 The first official case of detection of counterfeit drugs in Russia was registered
• 2004 Introduction of the concept of "counterfeit medicines" into the Russian legislation

In the Russian history of drug falsification, 3 stages can be conditionally distinguished:

A distinction should be made between counterfeit medicines and counterfeit medicines.

Fake

Counterfeit is a deliberate change in the formulation of the production of a medicinal product. Replacing expensive components with cheaper ones, or reducing the content (and in the worst case, completely absent) of the necessary component of the drug. For example, replacing the more expensive cefazolin with cheaper (and less effective) penicillin. In addition, other violations in production are possible: violation of the time and sequence of the technological process, underestimation of the degree of purification, poor-quality packaging materials, etc.

counterfeit

Counterfeit drugs are drugs produced without the permission of the patent holder - the developer company.

The effectiveness of a drug is primarily determined by the active substance (but not only by it, see bioequivalence). According to regulations international law, the formula or composition of the active substance cannot be a company secret. But for some time (about several years) this information is closed to other manufacturers, who, even under a different name, cannot produce this medicine without the permission of the patent holder's company.

Even at the end of the allotted time, other companies cannot use the name of the drug (Brand) registered by the company - the patent holder (the so-called patent form).

There is a temptation for drug manufacturers, knowing the formula, to release drugs bypassing the patent owner. An example is the drug No-Shpa® (registered brand name). In fact, this is a fairly simple synthesized drug, the active substance of which has generic name"drotaverine". However, for several generations people have used No-Shpa and know nothing about some drotaverine. Accordingly, the price of a branded drug is 10 (!) Times higher than the price of exactly the same in composition, manufacturing technology and action, the drug drotaverine. It is not surprising that at some factories that produce cheap domestic drugs during the day, at night the same drugs are packed in foreign, branded packages. It should be added that this usually does not affect the quality of the drug, since the counterfeit manufacturer is afraid to arouse even the slightest suspicion from the inspection authorities.

Illicit drug trafficking

Narcotic substances are subject to stricter rules of circulation than other drugs. However, due to the increased demand for them, there are situations in which officials neglect the proper performance of official duties.

• The flip side of the tightening of requirements for the circulation of narcotic drugs is the unreasonably difficult obtaining by persons with direct indications for use (oncological diseases, etc.).

5. Medicinal substance, medicinal product, medicinal product, dosage form

Drug - any substance or product used to modify or investigate physiological systems or pathological conditions for the benefit of the recipient (according to WHO, 1966); individual substances, mixtures of substances or compositions of unknown composition, with proven medicinal properties.

Medicinal substance - an individual chemical compound used as a drug.

The dosage form is convenient for practical application the form given to the drug to obtain the desired therapeutic or prophylactic effect.

Medicinal product – a medicinal product in a specific dosage form approved by a government agency.

6. Names of drugs, generic drugs.

a) complete chemical name: para-acetaminophenol

b) international (non-proprietary, officially approved in the pharmacopoeia): "Paracetamol"

c) trade (proprietary): "Panadol"

Generic drugs (generic drugs) - drugs that have chemical, biological and clinical equivalence with known drugs for which patent protection has expired.

7. Concepts of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

Pharmacokinetics is everything that the body does with drugs: it studies absorption, distribution, metabolism (biotransformation), binding to plasma proteins and other tissues, and elimination of drugs.

Pharmacodynamics is everything that drugs do with the body: it studies the localization, mechanism of action, biochemical, physiological, side effects, toxic effects of drugs, their strength and duration.

8. The main components of pharmacokinetics:

Association with plasma proteins and other tissues

Metabolism (biotransformation) of drugs

Elimination of drugs from the body

9. Ways of introducing drugs into the body. Presystemic elimination of drugs.

Ways of introducing drugs into the body:

1. For systemic action

A. Enteral route of administration:

Inside (peros) - orally

Through a probe (for example, into the 12th duodenum)

b. Parenteral route of administration: intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, inhalation, subarachnoid, transdermal.

2. For local exposure:

In the cavity (abdominal, pleural, articular)

In tissue (infiltration)

Presystemic elimination of drugs - loss of drugs before entering the general circulation system (i.e., into the systemic circulation) - losses during the first passage (through the liver).

10. Transfer of drugs through biological barriers: main mechanisms and determinants.

The main mechanisms of drug transfer:

a) filtration through the water channels of the membranes (pore diameter of the order of 4 Ắ), characteristic of water, some ions, small hydrophilic molecules (urea).

b) diffusion in lipids is the main mechanism of drug transfer, drugs diffuse passively along the concentration gradient.

2) active (i.e., flowing with energy consumption):

a) active transfer - the transfer of drugs, regardless of the concentration gradient using the energy of ATP, is characteristic of hydrophilic polar molecules, a number of inorganic ions, sugars, amino acids, pyrimidines.

b) microvesicular transport (pinocytosis) - invagination cell membrane and subsequent capture of the drug with the formation of a vacuole (absorption of vitamin B 12 in combination with internal factor Castle and some protein molecules).

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What is a drug

A medicinal product (PM) is a special substance or a combination of several substances of natural, synthetic or biotechnological origin that has pharmacological activity and is used in a certain dosage form for the prevention and diagnosis of diseases, treatment and medical rehabilitation patients, preventing pregnancy by internal or external use.

Classification of medicines (basic criteria):

1. By state of aggregation(dosage form):

Solid (tablets, dragees, granules, powders, collections, hard gelatin capsules, films);

Soft (ointments, gels, creams, suppositories, soft gelatin capsules);

Liquid (solutions, tinctures, extracts, suspensions, emulsions, syrups);

2. According to the dosing method:

Dosed (powders, solutions, tablets, capsules and others, divided into separate doses);

Undosed (ointments, gels, powders, bath powders, etc.);

3. According to the method and route of introduction into the body:

Enteral - introduced into the body through gastrointestinal tract(through the mouth - orally, under the tongue - sublingually, through the rectum - rectally);

Parenteral - administered bypassing the gastrointestinal tract (by injection into the vascular bed (artery, vein), under the skin or into the muscle, by application to the skin and mucous membranes of the body, by inhalation).

4. According to anatomical-therapeutic-chemical groups (international classification):

According to the nosology of the disease for which the drug is intended

By pharmacological action LS,

Its chemical structure

Group L: Anticancer drugs and immunomodulators

L 01 Anticancer drugs

L 01 C Plant alkaloids

L 01 SA Vinca alkaloids and analogues

L 01 CA01 Vinblastine

L 01 CA02 Vincristine

L 01 CA04 Vinorelbine

L 01 CD Taxoids

L 01 CD01 Paclitaxel

L 01 CD02 Docetaxel

Dosage form - the form given to the medicinal product, which determines its state, dosage, packaging and method of application.

Types of dosage forms of medicines:

Solid (tablets, hard gelatin capsules, powders, granules);

Liquid (solutions, suspensions, emulsions);

Soft (ointments, creams, gels, suppositories, soft gelatin capsules);

2. Pharmacy and pharmaceuticals: history of origin and development. « | » 4. The composition of medicines | pharmaceutical substance, excipient.

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Medicines - what is it? Classifications

Pharmacology is the science that studies how drugs act on human body how new drugs are made. Even the ancient Greeks and Indians, the inhabitants of the tundra and the southern edge of Africa, tried to defeat diseases, looked for ways to deal with them. People have always strived for this, making their obsession the main dream.

A little about pharmacological terminology

Drugs are substances or a combination of substances used by people to treat diseases or for preventive purposes.

Medicinal products are drugs that are ready to use. Medicines can have various forms, which makes their use convenient and creates the possibility of an individual approach to the treatment of each patient. A variety of forms of drug release allows you to deliver them to the body different ways which helps to work with patients who have unconsciousness, and treat patients who have been injured or burned.

The concept of lists: A and B

There is a division of all drugs into three main groups:

• List A includes poisonous drugs.
• To list B - strong drugs and analgesics.
• To medicines available without a doctor's prescription - all the rest.

To obtain medicines of classes A and B in pharmacy chains, you must have special prescription. They demand that they be treated with increased attention: they know how to take it correctly, as well as the conditions for the proper storage of these medicines. Some of them decompose in sunlight or become toxic if stored in the light.

In addition, there is strict reporting on the use of certain drugs (such drugs include morphine). In this case, the drugs are given in ampoules nurses after the shift, which must be confirmed by a corresponding log entry. Medicines that are considered antipsychotics, vaccines, and drugs for anesthesia are also subject to accounting.

What is a recipe?

A prescription is a special note by a doctor to pharmacists or pharmacists, which indicates a request to allow the patient to purchase a medicine. The prescription indicates the form, dose, method and frequency of use of the drug.

The prescription form is both a medical, legal and monetary document in the case when the medicine is given free of charge and on a discount. Based on the existing legislative act regulating the rules for issuing prescriptions, this can be done by a doctor of any specialty and position.

A drug can not only eliminate or prevent diseases. It can also be poisonous, so the doctor must be careful when writing a prescription: the dosage must be accurate and correct.

The concept of drug dosage

Filling out the prescription form, the doctor writes down, using Arabic numerals, the amount of the medicinal substance, indicating mass or volume units in the decimal system, separating grams with a comma (1.5). The drops that make up the medicinal substance are indicated by Roman numerals. The calculation of the composition of some antibiotics is made only in international or biological units, denoted by IU or ED.

There are various forms of medicinal substances: solid, liquid, gaseous. To indicate the amount of liquids and gases in the prescription, milliliters are used, and for inhalation, doctors sometimes note doses of a dry medicinal substance. At the bottom of the prescription, the doctor puts his signature and personal seal. Also in the prescription it is necessary to indicate the surname, initials, age of the patient, put the date and expiration date of the prescription.

Prescriptions for purchase are written on special forms subsidized medicines, narcotic substances, sleeping pills, antipsychotics and painkillers. Such prescriptions are signed by the attending physician, the chief physician of the hospital, certifying with a seal. A round seal of the medical institution is also put.

It is forbidden in outpatient clinics to extract ether for anesthesia, fentanyl, chloroethane, ketamine and other sleeping substances. Doctors in most countries use Latin for writing prescriptions. Medication recommendations are written in language that patients can understand.

A permit for the sale of narcotic and poisonous preparations is issued for five days, medical alcohol– within ten days, and prescriptions for other medicines have an expiration date of two months after discharge

What is the general classification?

Today there are many unusual drugs, so they need to be classified for proper orientation. There are the following conditional classification guides:

1. Therapeutic action - a group of drugs that are used in the treatment of one disease.
2. Pharmacological action - the effect produced by the drug.
3. Chemical structure.
4. Nosological principle, which is similar to the therapeutic, but with a narrow distinction.

The division of drugs into groups

The development of medicine has led to the fact that doctors had to deal with the systematization of medicines. The classification was made by chemists and pharmacists, using the principle of the application point. It consisted of the following categories:

1. Psychotropic drugs and drugs that have a therapeutic effect on the cells of the central nervous system(tranxilizers, neuroleptics, sedatives, antidepressants, antiepileptics, anti-inflammatory drugs).
2. Medicines for the treatment of the peripheral nervous system (ganglion blockers, anticholinergics).
3. Local anesthetics.
4. Drugs that change vascular tone.
5. Diuretic and choleretic agents.
6. Medicines for the treatment of organs of internal secretion and metabolism.
7. Antibiotics and antiseptics.
8. Anticancer drugs.
9. Diagnostic tools (dyes, contrast agents, radionuclides).

With the help of this and similar divisions, young doctors study the medicines that exist today. With the help of classification into groups, doctors intuitively understand how a particular drug works and remember the doses.

Medicines are classified according to their chemical structure.

On this basis, antiseptic and antimicrobial drugs are classified. Medicinal substances are bactericidal and bacteriostatic, and differ in their chemical structure, which underlies the mechanism of action of the drug on the body and names.

• Halides. They are based on elements belonging to the halogen group (chlorine, fluorine, bromine, iodine).
• Oxidizers. The mechanism of their action is the ability to form free oxygen in in large numbers(hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, hydroperite).
• Acids. IN medical purposes use various acids, but most often use salicylic and boric.
• alkalis. These include sodium borate, ammonia.
• Aldehydes that remove fluid from tissues (formalin, ethanol and others).
• Salts of heavy metals.
• Phenols, characterized by the provision of an irritating and cauterizing effect on the body (carbolic acid, lysol).
• Dyes. Used for diagnostics, as well as a local irritant and antibacterial agent (methylene blue, brilliant green, and others).
• Tars and resins in the form of Vishnevsky's balm, Wilkinson's ointment, ichthyol and others. They are used to improve local blood supply to tissues.

Solid drugs are drugs that are produced in the form of:

• Tablets obtained by shaping a powder under pressure, which contains active and excipients.
• Dragee - arranged in layers of active and auxiliary substances, which are pressed around the granules.
• powder. They are used as powders for wounds, for intramuscular or intravenous injections (saline is used to dilute the powder). Powders are undosed and dosed, simple and complex.
• A capsule in a gelatin shell contains a medicine that can be liquid, granular, powder or paste.
• Granules most commonly used for making homeopathic medicines- These are small particles, the size of which does not exceed half a millimeter.

Medicines are available in liquid form

This method is used to prepare solutions, galenic and new herbal preparations, balms, collodions and other liquid and semi-liquid preparations.

• To form solutions, the drug substance is mixed with a solvent.
• To obtain galenical preparations, plant extracts are heated.
• For the preparation of infusions and decoctions, dry medicinal plants are used. Their composition is indicated in the prescription, and the solvent and its amount are also indicated so that the pharmacist correctly prepares the drug.
• Infusions and extracts are liquids that contain alcohol. They can prepare for pure form, and there are also alcohol-water or alcohol-ether.
• For the preparation of novogalenic preparations, raw materials and the finished product are subjected to a high degree of purification.

Medicines of special forms

These include balms. Balm is an oily liquid that has deodorizing and antiseptic properties.

Collodion is obtained by dissolving nitrocellulose in alcohol and ether. A combination of one to six. Used for external use.

Any cream has a semi-liquid consistency and consists of plant extracts that are mixed with a base in the form of glycerin, wax, paraffin.

It is better for children to give medicines in the form of lemonades and syrups. Little patients take them with pleasure and they like this treatment process.

Injections are made with sterile water and oil solutions which are both simple and complex. When writing a prescription, the doctor must indicate the dose of the medicinal substance and its volume, which contains one ampoule, and recommend the place of administration of the drug.

Soft drugs

A mild form of the drug is obtained by using a fatty or fat-like substance as a base. They are defined, classified, manufactured by chemists and pharmacists. The doctor should only specify the dose and indication for use in the prescription.

IN medicinal ointments must contain at least twenty-five percent solids. The appropriate consistency can be achieved by mixing the powder and animal fat, wax, vegetable oils, petroleum jelly or polyethylene glycol.

The same conditions are used when making pastes, with the difference that they are more viscous. The consistency of the liniments, on the contrary, should be more liquid. In addition, they are shaken before use in order to allow the settled powder to be evenly distributed in the solvent.

Suppositories or suppositories have a solid form, however, when they enter the human body, they quickly melt and turn into liquid.

The patches have a solid form while they are in a room at room temperature. Once on the skin, they melt and stick to it, which contributes to the formation of a tight contact.

Most medicines are substances of plant origin, which are subjected to chemical or physical treatment in order to better assimilate them into the body of an unhealthy person.